Digital Image Processing SCSVMV Dept of ECE

UNIT -2
IMAGE ENHANCEMENT
Learning Objectives:
Image enhancement techniques are designed to improve the quality of an
image as perceived by a human being. Image enhancement can be
performed both in the spatial as well as in the frequency domain. After
reading this chapter, the reader should have a basic knowledge about the
following concepts:
1. Image enhancement in spatial and frequency domain
2. Point operations and mask operations in spatial domain
3. Different types of gray –level transformation
4. Histogram and histogram equalization
5. Frequency domain filtering

Introduction:
Image enhancement approaches fall into two broad categories: spatial
domain methods and frequency domain methods. The term spatial domain
refers to the image plane itself, and approaches in this category are based
on direct manipulation of pixels in an image.
Frequency domain processing techniques are based on modifying the
Fourier transform of an image. Enhancing an image provides better
contrast and a more detailed image as compare to non-enhanced image.
Image enhancement has very good applications. It is used to enhance
medical images, images captured in remote sensing, images from satellite
etc. As indicated previously, the term spatial domain refers to the
aggregate of pixels composing an image. Spatial domain methods are
procedures that operate directly on these pixels. Spatial domain processes
will be denoted by the expression.
g(x,y) = T[f(x,y)]
where f(x, y) is the input image, g(x, y) is the processed image, and T is an
operator on f, defined over some neighborhood
of (x, y).

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The principal approach in defining a neighborhood about a point (x, y) is to

use a square or rectangular sub image area centered at (x, y), as Fig. 2.1
shows. The center of the sub image is moved from pixel to pixel starting,
say, at the top left corner. The operator T is applied at each location (x, y)
to yield the output, g, at that location. The process utilizes only the pixels
in the area of the image spanned by the neighborhood.

The simplest form of T is when the neighborhood is of size 1*1 (that is, a
single pixel). In this case, g depends only on the value of f at (x, y), and T
becomes a gray-level (also called an intensity or mapping) transformation
function of the form
s=T(r)
where r is the pixels of the input image and s is the pixels of the output
image. T is a transformation function that maps each value of „r‟ to each
value of „s‟.

For example, if T(r) has the form shown in Fig. 2.2(a), the effect of this
transformation would be to produce an image of higher contrast than the
original by darkening the levels below m and brightening the levels above
m in the original image. In this technique, known as contrast stretching,
the values of r below m are compressed by the transformation function into
a narrow range of s, toward black. The opposite effect takes place for
values of r above m.

In the limiting case shown in Fig. 2.2(b), T(r) produces a two-level (binary)
image. A mapping of this form is called a thresholding function.
One of the principal approaches in this formulation is based on the use of
so-called masks (also referred to as filters, kernels, templates, or windows).
Basically, a mask is a small (say, 3*3) 2-D array, such as the one shown in
Fig. 2.1, in which the values of the mask coefficients determine the nature
of the process, such as image sharpening. Enhancement techniques based
on this type of approach often are referred to as mask processing or
filtering.

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Fig. 2.2 Gray level transformation functions for contrast enhancement

Image enhancement can be done through gray level transformations which
are discussed below.

BASIC GRAY LEVEL TRANSFORMATIONS:

1. Imagenegative
2. Logtransformations
3. Power lawtransformations
4. Piecewise-Linear transformationfunctions

LINEAR TRANSFORMATION:
First, we will look at the linear transformation. Linear transformation
includes simple identity and negative transformation. Identity
transformation has been discussed in ourtutorial of image transformation,
but a brief description of this transformation has been given here.
Identity transition is shown by a straight line. In this transition, each
value of the input image is directly mapped to each other value of output
image. That results in the same input image and output image. And hence
is called identity transformation. It has been shown below:

Fig. Linear transformation between input and output

NEGATIVE TRANSFORMATION:
The second linear transformation is negative transformation, which is
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invert of identity transformation. In negative transformation, each value of

the input image is subtracted from the L-1 and mapped onto the output
image

IMAGE NEGATIVE:
The image negative with gray level value in the range of [0, L-1] is
obtained by negative transformation given by S = T(r) or
S = L -1 – r
Where r= gray level value at pixel (x,y)
L is the largest gray level consists in the image
It results in getting photograph negative. It is useful when for enhancing
white details embedded in dark regions of the image.
The overall graph of these transitions has been shown below.

Input gray level, r

Fig. Some basic gray-level transformation functions used for image

enhancement
In this case the following transition has been done.
S = (L – 1) – r
Since the input image of Einstein is an 8 bpp image, so the number of
levels in this image are256. Putting 256 in the equation, we get this
S = 255 – r
So, each value is subtracted by 255 and the result image has been shown
above. So, what happens is that, the lighter pixels become dark and the
darker picture becomes light. And it results in image negative.
It has been shown in the graph below.

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Fig. Negative transformations

LOGARITHMIC TRANSFORMATIONS:
Logarithmic transformation further contains two type of transformation.
Log transformation and inverse log transformation.

LOG TRANSFORMATIONS:
The log transformations can be defined by this formula
S = c log(r + 1).
Where S and r are the pixel values of the output and the input image and c
is a constant. The value 1 is added to each of the pixel value of the input
image because if there is a pixel intensity of 0 in the image, then log (0) is
equal to infinity. So, 1 is added, to make the minimum value at least 1.
During log transformation, the dark pixels in an image are expanded as
compare to the higher pixel values. The higher pixel values are kind of
compressed in log transformation. This result in following image
enhancement.

ANOTHER WAY TO REPRESENT LOG TRANSFORMATIONS: Enhance

details in the darker regions of an image at the expense of detail in
brighter regions.
T(f) = C * log (1+r)
HereC is constantand r≥ 0

The shape of the curve shows that this transformation maps the narrow
range of low gray level valuesintheinputimageintoa
widerrangeofoutputimage.
Theoppositeis trueforhighlevelvaluesofinputimage.

Fig. Log Transformation Curve input vs output

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POWER – LAW TRANSFORMATIONS:

There are further two transformation is power law transformations, that
include nth power and nth root transformation. These transformations can
be given by the expression:
S=Crγ
This symbol γ is called gamma, due to which this transformation is also
known as gamma transformation.

Variation in the value of γ varies the enhancement of the images. Different

display devices / monitors have their own gamma correction, that’s why
they display their image at different intensity, where c and g are positive
constants. Sometimes Eq. (6) is written as
S = C (r +ε) γ
to account for an offset (that is, a measurable output when the input is
zero). Plots of s versus r for various values of γ are shown in Fig. 2.10. As
in the case of the log transformation, power-law curves with fractional
values of γ map a narrow range of dark input values into a wider range of
output values, with the opposite being true for higher values of input
levels. Unlike the log function, however, we notice here a family of possible
transformation curves obtained simply by varying γ.

In Fig that curves generated with values of γ>1 have exactly the opposite
effect as those generated with values of γ<1. Finally, we Note that Eq. (6)
reduces to the identity transformation when c=γ=1.

Fig. 2.13 Plot of the equation S = Crγ for various values of γ

(C =1 in all cases)

This type of transformation is used for enhancing images for different type
of display devices. The gamma of different display devices is different. For
example, Gamma of CRT lies in between of 1.8 to 2.5, that means the
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image displayed on CRT is dark.

Varying gamma (γ) obtains family of possible transformation curves
S = C* r γ
Here C and γ are positive constants. Plot of S versus r for various values of
γ is γ > 1 compresses dark values and expands bright valuesγ < 1 (similar
to Log transformation) but expands dark values Compresses bright values
When C = γ = 1, it reduces to identity transformation.

CORRECTING GAMMA:
S=Cr γ
S=Cr (1/2.5)
The same image but with different gamma values has been shown here.

PIECEWISE-LINEAR TRANSFORMATION FUNCTIONS:

A complementary approach to the methods discussed in the previous three
sections is to use piecewise linear functions. The principal advantage of
piecewise linear functions over the types of functions we have discussed
thus far is that the form of piecewise functions can be arbitrarily
complex.The principal disadvantage of piecewise functions is that their
specification requires considerably more user input.

Contrast Stretching: One of the simplest piecewise linear functions is a

contrast-stretching transformation. Low-contrast images can result from
poor illumination, lack of dynamicrange in the imaging sensor, or even
wrong setting of a lens aperture during image acquisition.
S= T(r )
Figure x(a) shows a typical transformation used for contrast stretching.
The locations of points (r1, s1) and (r2, s2) control the shape of the
transformation function. If r1=s1 and r2=s2, the transformation is a linear
function that produces No changes in gray levels. If r1=r2, s1=0and s2= L-
1, the transformation Becomes a thresholding function that creates a
binary image, as illustrated in fig. 2.2(b).

Intermediate values of ar1, s1b and ar2, s2b produce various degrees of
spread in the gray levels of the output image, thus affecting its contrast. In
general, r1≤ r2 and s1 ≤ s2 is assumed so that the function is single valued
and Monotonically increasing.

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Fig. x Contrast Stretching.

(a) Form of transformation function
(b) A low-contrast stretching.
(c) Result of contrast stretching
(d) Result of thresholding

Figure x(b) shows an 8-bit image with low contrast.

Fig. x(c) shows the result of contrast stretching, obtained by setting (r 1, s1)
=(rmin, 0) and (r2, s2)=(rmax,L-1) where rmin and rmax denote the minimum
and maximum gray levels in the image, respectively. Thus, the
transformation function stretched the levels linearly from their original
range to the full range[0, L-1].

Finally, Fig. x(d) shows the result of using the thresholding function
defined previously,with r1=r2=m, the mean gray level in the image. The
original image on which these results are based is a scanning electron
microscope image of pollen, magnified approximately 700 times.

Gray-level Slicing:Highlighting a specific range of gray levels in an image

often is desired. Applications include enhancing features such as masses of
water in satellite imagery and enhancing flaws in X-ray images.There are
several ways of doing level slicing, but most of them are variations of two
basic themes. One approach is to display a high value for all gray levels in
the range of interest and a low value for all other gray levels.

This transformation, shown in Fig. y(a), produces a binary image. The

second approach, based on the transformation shown in Fig y(b), brightens

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the desired range of gray levels but preserves the background and gray-
level tonalities in the image. Figure y (c) shows a gray-scale image, and
Fig. y(d) shows the result of using the transformation in Fig. y(a).
Variations of the two transformations shown in Fig. are easy to formulate.

Fig. y (a)This transformation highlights range [A,B] of gray levels and

reduces all others to a constant level
(b) This transformation highlights range [A,B] but preserves all other
levels.
An image. (d) Result of using the transformation in (a).

BIT-PLANE SLICING:
Instead of highlighting gray-level ranges, highlighting the contribution
made to total image appearance by specific bits might be desired. Suppose
that each pixel in an image is represented by 8 bits. Imagine that the
image is composed of eight 1-bit planes, ranging from bit-plane 0 for the
least significant bit to bit plane 7 for the most significant bit. In terms of 8-
bit bytes, plane 0 contains all the lowest order bits in the bytes comprising
the pixels in the image and plane 7 contains all the high-order bits.

Figure 3.12 illustrates these ideas, and Fig. 3.14 shows the various bit
planes for the image shown in Fig. 3.13. Note that the higher-order bits

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(especially the top four) contain the majority of the visually significant
data.The other bit planes contribute to more subtle details in the image.
Separating a digital image into its bit planes is useful for analyzing the
relative importance played by each bit of the image, a process that aids in
determining the adequacy of the number of bits used to quantize each
pixel.

In terms of bit-plane extraction for an 8-bit image, it is not difficult to show

that the (binary) image for bit-plane 7 can be obtained by processing the
input image with a thresholding gray-level transformation function that
(1) maps all levels in the image between 0 and 127 to one level (for
example, 0); and (2) maps all levels between 129 and 255 to another (for
example, 255).The binary image for bit-plane 7 in Fig. 3.14 was obtained in
just this manner. It is left as an exercise(Problem 3.3) to obtain the gray-
level transformation functions that would yield the other bit planes.

HISTOGRAM PROCESSING:
The histogram of a digital image with gray levels in the range [0, L-1] is a
discrete function of the form
H(rk)=nk
where rk is the k gray level and nk is the number of pixels in the image
th

having the level rk. A normalized histogram is given by the equation

P(rk)=nk/n for k=0,1,2,…..,L-1
P(rk) gives the estimate of the probability of occurrence of gray level rk. The
sum of all components of a normalized histogram is equal to 1.
The histogram plots are simple plots of H(rk)=nk versus rk.

In the dark image the components of the histogram are concentrated on

the low (dark) side of the gray scale. In case of bright image, the histogram
components are biased towards the high side of the gray scale. The
histogram of a low contrast image will be narrow and will be centered
towards the middle of the gray scale.

The components of the histogram in the high contrast image cover a broad
range of the gray scale. The net effect of this will be an image that shows a
great deal of gray levels details and has high dynamic range.

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HISTOGRAM EQUALIZATION:
Histogram equalization is a common technique for enhancing the
appearance of images. Suppose we have an image which is predominantly
dark. Then its histogram would beskewed towards the lower end of the
grey scale and all the image detail are compressed into the dark end of the
histogram. If we could stretch out the grey levels at the dark end to
produce a more uniformly distributed histogram then the image would
become much clearer.

Let there be a continuous function with r being gray levels of the image to
be enhanced. The range of r is [0, 1] with r=0 repressing black and r=1
representing white. The transformation function is of the form
S=T(r) where 0<r<1
It produces a level s for every pixel value r in the original image.

The transformation function is assumed to fulfill two condition T(r) is

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single valued and monotonically increasing in the internal 0<T(r)<1 for

0<r<1.The transformation function should be single valued so that the
inverse transformations should exist. Monotonically increasing condition
preserves the increasing order from black to white in the output image.
The second conditions guarantee that the output gray levels will be in the
same range as the input levels. The gray levels of the image may be viewed
as random variables in the interval [0.1]. The most fundamental descriptor
of a random variable is its probability density function (PDF) Pr(r) and
Ps(s) denote the probability density functions of random variables r and s
respectively. Basic results from an elementary probability theory states
that if Pr(r) and Tr are known and T-1(s) satisfies conditions (a), then the
probability density function Ps(s) of the transformed variable is given by
the formula

Thus, the PDF of the transformed variable s is the determined by the gray
levels PDF of the input image and by the chosen transformations function.
A transformation function of a particular importance in image processing

This is the cumulative distribution function of r.

L is the total number of possible gray levels in the image.

IMAGE ENHANCEMENT IN FREQUENCY DOMAIN:

Blurring/Noise Reduction:Noise characterized by sharp transitions in
image intensity. Such transitions contribute significantly to high frequency
components of Fourier transform. Intuitively, attenuating certain high
frequency components result in blurring and reduction of image noise.

IDEAL LOW-PASS FILTER:

Cuts off all high-frequency components at a distance greater than a certain
distance from origin (cutoff frequency).
H (u,v) = 1, if D(u,v) ≤ D0 0, if D(u,v) ˃ D0
Where D0 is a positive constant and D(u,v) is the distance between a point
(u,v) in the frequency domain and the center of the frequency rectangle;
that is
D(u,v) = [(u-P/2)2 + (v-Q/2)2] 1/2
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Whereas P and Q are the padded sizes from the basic equations
Wraparound error in their circular convolution can be avoided by padding
these functions with zeros

Visualization: Ideal Low Pass Filter:

Aa shown in figure below

Fig: Ideal Low Pass Filter 3-D view and 2-D view and line graph

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT CUTOFF FREQUENCIES:

Fig.below(a) Test pattern of size 688x688 pixels, and (b) its Fourier
spectrum. The spectrum is double the image size due to padding but is
shown in half size so that it fits in the page. The superimposed circles
have radii equal to 10, 30, 60, 160 and 460 with respect to the full- size
spectrum image. These radii enclose 87.0, 93.1, 95.7, 97.8 and 99.2% of the
padded image power respectively.

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Fig: (a) Test pattern of size 688x688 pixels (b) its Fourier spectrum

Fig: (a) original image, (b)-(f) Results of filtering using ILPFs with cutoff
frequencies set at radii values 10, 30, 60, 160 and 460, as shown in
fig.2.2.2(b). The power removed by these filters was 13, 6.9, 4.3, 2.2 and
0.8% of the total, respectively.

As the cutoff frequency decreases,image becomes more blurred,

Noiseincreases. Analogous to larger spatial filter sizes the severe blurring
in this image is a clear indication that most of the sharp detail information
in the picture is contained in the 13% power removed by the filter. As the
filter radius is increases less and less power is removed, resulting in less
blurring. Fig. (c) throughare characterized by “Ringing”, which becomes
finer in texture as the amount of high frequency content removed
decreases.

WHY IS THERE RINGING?

Ideal low-pass filter function is a rectangular function.

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The inverse Fourier transform of a rectangular function is a sinc function.

Fig. Spatial representation of ILPFs of order 1 and 20 and corresponding

intensity profiles through the center of the filters (the size of all cases is
1000x1000 and the cutoff frequency is 5)
Observe how ringing increases as a function of filter order.

BUTTERWORTH LOW-PASS FILTER:

Transferfunction of a Butterworth lowpass filter (BLPF) of order n, and
with cutoff frequency at a distance D0 from the origin, is defined as

-
Transfer function does not have sharp discontinuity establishing cutoff
between passed and filtered frequencies.
Cut off frequency D0 defines point at which H(u,v) = 0.5

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Fig. (a) perspective plot of a Butterworth lowpass-filter transfer function.

(b) Filter displayed as an image. (c)Filter radial cross sections of order 1
through 4.

Unlike the ILPF, the BLPF transfer function does not have a sharp
discontinuity that gives a clear cutoff between passed and filtered
frequencies.

BUTTERWORTH LPF OF DIFFERENTFREQUENCIES:

Fig. (a) Original image. (b)-(f) Results of filtering using BLPFs of order 2,
with cutoff frequencies at the radii

Fig. shows the results of applying the BLPF of eq. to fig.(a), with n=2 and
D0 equal to the five radii in fig.(b) for the ILPF, we note here a smooth
transition in blurring as a function of increasing cutoff frequency.
Moreover, no ringing is visible in any of the images processed with this
particular BLPF, a fact attributed to the filter’s smooth transition between
low and high frequencies.

A BLPF of order 1 has no ringing in the spatial domain. Ringing generally

is imperceptible in filters of order 2, but can become significant in filters of
higher order.Figure shows a comparison between the spatial
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representation of BLPFs of various orders (using a cutoff frequency of 5 in

all cases). Shown also is the intensity profile along a horizontal scan line
through the center of each filter. The filter of order 2 does show mild
ringing and small negative values, but they certainly are less pronounced
than in the ILPF. A butter worth filters of order 20 exhibits characteristics
similar to those of the ILPF (in the limit, both filters are identical).

Fig.2.2.7 (a)-(d) Spatial representation of BLPFs of order 1, 2, 5 and 20 and

corresponding intensity profiles through the center of the filters (the size
in all cases is 1000 x 1000 and the cutoff frequency is 5) Observe how
ringing increases as a function of filter order.

GAUSSIAN LOWPASS FILTERS:

The form of these filters in two dimensions is given by

This transfer function is smooth, like Butterworth filter.

Gaussian in frequency domain remains a Gaussian in spatial domain
Advantage: No ringing artifacts.

Where D0 is the cutoff frequency. When D(u,v) = D0, the GLPF is down to
0.607 of its maximum value. This means that a spatial Gaussian filter,
obtained by computing the IDFT of above equation., will have no ringing.

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Figure shows a perspective plot, image display and radial cross sections of
a GLPF function.

Fig. (a) Perspective plot of a GLPF transfer function. (b) Filter displayed as
an image. (c). Filter radial cross sections for various values of D0

Fig.(a) Original image. (b)-(f) Results of filtering using GLPFs with cutoff
frequencies at the radii shown in fig.2.2.2. compare with fig.2.2.3 and
fig.2.2.6

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Fig. (a) Original image (784x 732 pixels)

(b) Result of filtering using a GLPF with D0 = 100
(c) Result of filtering using a GLPF with D0 = 80. Note the reduction in fine
skin lines in the magnified sections in (b) and (c)

Fig. shows an application of lowpass filtering for producing a smoother,

softer- looking result from a sharp original. For human faces, the typical
objective is to reduce the sharpness of fine skin lines and small blemished.

IMAGE SHARPENING USING FREQUENCY DOMAIN FILTERS:

An image can be smoothed by attenuating the high-frequency components
of its Fourier transform. Because edges and other abrupt changes in
intensities are associated with high-frequency components, image
sharpening can be achieved in the frequency domain by high pass filtering,
which attenuates the low-frequency components without disturbing high-
frequency information in the Fourier transform.
The filter function H(u,v) are understood to be discrete functions of size
PxQ; that is the discrete frequency variables are in the range
u = 0,1, 2…….,P-1 and
v = 0,1,2,…….,(Q-1)
The meaning of sharpening isedges and fine detail characterized by sharp
transitions in image intensity. Such transitions contribute significantly to
high frequency components of Fourier transform. Intuitively, attenuating
certain low frequency components and preserving high frequency
components result in sharpening.Intended goal is to do the reverse
operation of low-pass filters.
When low-pass filter attenuated frequencies, high-pass filter passes them.
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When high-pass filter attenuates frequencies, low-pass filter passes them.

A high pass filter is obtained from a given low pass filter using the
equation.
Hhp (u,v) = 1- Htp (u,v)
Where Hlp (u,v) is the transfer function of the low-pass filter. That is when
the low- pass filter attenuates frequencies, the high-pass filter passed
them, and vice-versa.

We consider ideal, Butter-worth, and Gaussian high-pass filters. As in the

previous section, we illustrate the characteristics of these filters in both
the frequency and spatial domains. Fig shows typical 3-D plots, image
representations and cross sections for these filters. As before, we see that
the Butter-worth filter represents a transition between the sharpness of
the ideal filter and the broad smoothness of the Gaussian filter.
Figdiscussed in the sections the follow, illustrates what these filters look
like in the spatial domain. The spatial filters were obtained and displayed
by using the procedure used.

Fig: Top row: Perspective plot, image representation, and cross section of a
typical ideal high-pass filter. Middle and bottom rows: The same sequence
for typical butter-worth and Gaussian high-pass filters.
IDEAL HIGH-PASS FILTER:
A 2-D ideal high-pass filter (IHPF) is defined as
H (u,v) = 0, if D(u,v) ≤ D0
H (u,v) = 1, if D(u,v) ˃ D0
Where D0 is the cutoff frequency and D(u,v) is given by eq. As intended,
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the IHPF is the opposite of the ILPF in the sense that it sets to zero all
frequencies inside a circle ofradius D0 while passing, without attenuation,
all frequencies outside the circle. As in case of the ILPF, the IHPF is not
physically realizable.

SPATIAL REPRESENTATION OF HIGHPASS FILTERS:

Fig Spatial representation of typical (a) ideal (b) Butter-worth and (c)
Gaussian frequency domain high-pass filters, and corresponding intensity
profiles through their centers.

We can expect IHPFs to have the same ringing properties as ILPFs. This is
demonstrated clearly in Fig. which consists of various IHPF results using
the original image in Fig.(a) with D0 set to 30, 60, and 160 pixels,
respectively. The ringing in Fig. (a) is so severe that it produced distorted,
thickened object boundaries (E.g., look at the large letter “a”). Edges of the
top three circles do not show well because they are not as strong as the
other edges in the image (the intensity of these three objects is much closer
to the background intensity, giving discontinuities of smaller magnitude).
FILTERED RESULTS OF IHPF:

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Fig. Results of high-pass filtering the image in Fig.(a) using an IHPF with
D0 = 30, 60, and 160

The situation improved somewhat with D0 = 60. Edge distortion is quite

evident still, but now we begin to see filtering on the smaller objects. Due
to the now familiar inverse relationship between the frequency and spatial
domains, we know that the spot size of this filter is smaller than the spot
of the filter with D0 = 30. The result for D0 = 160 is closer to what a high-
pass filtered image should look like. Here, the edges are much cleaner and
less distorted, and the smaller objects have been filtered properly.Of
course, the constant background in all images is zero in these high-pass
filtered images because high pass filtering is analogous to differentiation
in the spatial domain.

BUTTER-WORTH HIGH-PASS FILTERS:

A 2-D Butter-worth high-pass filter (BHPF) of order n and cutoff frequency
D0 is defined as

Where D(u,v) is given by Eq.(3). This expression follows directly from

Eqs.(3) and (6). The middle row of Fig.2.2.11. shows an image and cross
section of the BHPF function.Butter-worth high-pass filter to behave
smoother than IHPFs. Fig.2.2.14. shows the performance of a BHPF of
order 2 and with D0 set to the same values as in Fig.2.2.13. The
boundaries are much less distorted than in Fig.2.2.13. even for the
smallest value of cutoff frequency.
FILTERED RESULTS OF BHPF:

Fig. Results of high-pass filtering the image in Fig.2.2.2(a) using a BHPF

of order 2 with D0 = 30, 60, and 160 corresponding to the circles in
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Fig.2.2.2(b). These results are much smoother than those obtained with an
IHPF

GAUSSIAN HIGH-PASS FILTERS:

The transfer function of the Gaussian high-pass filter (GHPF) with cutoff
frequency locus at a distance D0 from the center of the frequency rectangle
is given by

Where D(u,v) is given by Eq.(4). This expression follows directly from

Eqs.(2) and (6). The third row in Fig.2.2.11. shows a perspective plot,
image and cross section of the GHPF function. Following the same format
as for the BHPF, we show in Fig.2.2.15. comparable results using GHPFs.
As expected, the results obtained are more gradual than with the previous
two filters.

Fig. Results of high-pass filtering the image in fig.(a) using a GHPF with
D0 = 30, 60 and 160, corresponding to the circles in Fig.(b)

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