MODULE I

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIER

• A transistor circuit containing more than one stage of amplification is known as multistage
amplifier.
• A number of stages are connected in cascaded arrangement(output of stage 1 is connected
to output of stage 2 and like wise).
• This connection is made through a suitable coupling device.

NEED FOR COUPLING

• To transfer ac output of one stage to next.

• To isolate dc voltage from one stage to other.
• To minimize loading effect of one stage to other.

Based on the type of coupling, multistage amplifiers can be classified as

• RC Coupling: RC Coupled amplifier

• Transformer Coupling: Transformer Coupled amplifier
• Direct Coupling: Direct Coupled Amplifier

1. RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER

• The resistances R1, R2 and RE form the biasing and it is called Volage Divider Biasing and
stabilisation network.
• Coupling capacitor CC is used to connect the output of first stage to the base
• Coupling from one stage to next is achieved by a coupling capacitor.

WORKING

• When a.c. signal is applied to the base of the first transistor, it is amplified and appears
across its collector load RC.
• Now the amplified signal developed across RC is given to the base of the next transistor
through a coupling capacitor CC .
• The second stage again amplifies this signal and the more amplified signal appears across
the second stage collector resistance.
• In this way the cascaded stages amplify the signal and the overall gain is considerably
increased. The total gain is less than the product of the gains of individual stages.( It is
 because, when a second stage follows the first stage, the effective load resistance of first
stage is reduced due to the shunting effect of the input resistance of second stage. This
reduces the gain of the stage which is loaded by the next stage.)

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• The frequency response of RC coupled • They become noisy with age.
amplifier provides constant gain over a • Due to poor impedance matching,
wide frequency range, hence most power transfer will be low.
suitable for audio applications.
• The circuit is simple and has lower cost
because it employs resistors and
capacitors which are cheap.
• It becomes more compact with the
upgrading technology

POWER AMPLIFIERS

• Power amplifiers are basically used to enhance the power level of the input signal.
• Power amplifier is also called large signal amplifiers, as in order to get large power at the
output, input signal voltage required must also be large.
• This high input voltage makes high output current, which will give large power from
amplifier.

COMPARE VOLTAGE AND POWER AMPLIFIERS

Based on period of conduction, the power amplifiers can be classified as

1. CLASS A AMPLIFIER.

2.CLASS B AMPLIFIER.

3.CLASS C AMPLIFIER.

4.CLASS AB AMPLIFIER

COMPARISON OF POWER AMPLIFIERS (for details refer MODULE I ppt)

PUSH PULL AMPLIFIER

• In this arrangement, one transistor amplifies the positive half cycle whereas another
transistor amplifies the negative half cycle of the signal i.e. whole signal is amplified at the
output.

CONSTRUCTION

• It consists of two transistors T1 and T2 whose emitter terminals are connected together.
• Both the transistors operate as Class B Amplifiers (ie Ic=0 in the absence of signal).
• The circuit has two transformers one at the input and the other at the output.
• The input transformer has a centre tapped secondary winding. It provides equal and
opposite voltages to the base circuits of two transistors.
• The load resistance is connected across the secondary of the output transformer.

WORKING

• The input signal appears across the secondary of the input transformer.
 • During the +ve half cycle the base emitter junction of T1 becomes forward biased and that of
T2 is reverse biased.
• The circuit will conduct current due to T1 only. The input during +ve half cycle is hence
amplified by T1 and appears in the upper half of the primary of output transformer.
• During -ve half cycle of the input T2 is forward biased whereas T1 is reverse biased.
• So T2 amplifies the signal and the amplified signal appears across the lower half of the
output transformer primary which is transferred to the secondary.
• Thus the two transistors conduct in the alternate half cycles of the input signal.
• Hence the output of the amplifier will be twice of that offered by the single transistor
configuration.
• The push pull arrangement also permits maximum power transfer to the load via impedance
matching.

APPLICATIONS

• These amplifiers are utilized in RF systems.

• These amplifiers are also used in digital switching designs

NOTE: Explain the working of Push pull amplifier with a neat diagram: Answer should contain figure
and working

COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY PUSH PULL AMPLIFIER

• By complementary symmetry is meant assembling Push pull Class B Amplifier without

requiring centre tapped transformers at the input and output stages.
• It employs one NPN and one PNP stages and requires no centre tapped transformers.
 • WORKING
• During +ve half cycle of the input signal, transistor T1 conducts and T2 is cut off.
• During –ve half cycle of the input signal, transistor T2 conducts and T1 is cut off.
• In this way T1(NPN transistor) amplifies the +ve half cycle and T2 (PNP transistor ) amplifies
the –ve half cycle of the signal.
• The output transformer helps in impedance matching.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• This circuit does not require a • It is difficult to get a pair of
transformer. It saves weight and cost. transistors(NPN and PNP) having similar
• Equal and opposite signal voltages are chara
not required. • We require both positive and negative
supply voltages

FEEDBACK

• The process of taking a fraction of output signal and feeding it back to the input circuit is
called as feed back.

POSITIVE FEEDBACK

• If the feedback voltage(or current) is in phase with the input signal and thus increase the
input voltage to the amplifier then it is called positive feedback.
• Vi=Vin+Vf
Vi-input voltage.
Vin-Signal input voltage.
Vf-Feedback Voltage
• The positive feedback is also called
direct/regenerative feedback.
• It Increases gain
• It increases distortion so not used in amplifiers.
• Application: Oscillators

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

• If the feedback voltage/current is 180 degree out of phase with the input signal and thus
decreases the amplifier input then it is called Negative feedback.
• Vi=Vin-Vf
• It is also called inverse/degenerative feedback.
• It decreases the gain of the amplifier.
• Application: Amplifiers
COMPARISON OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

OSCILLATOR

• An electronic circuit that generates an alternating voltage of desired frequency is called

an Oscillator.
• It converts dc energy to ac energy.
• It does not require an external input signal to generate an ac output signal.
• It keeps producing an output signal so long as the dc power source is connected.

AMPLIFIER OSCILLATOR

• The
• Output Waveform is similar to input oscillator does not require an external
but with a power gain signal to start/maintain energy
• This gain to the dc signal is provided by conversion process.
dc source. • It keeps producing an output signal as
• If there is no input signal there is no long as dc power source is connected.
energy conversion there is no output • The frequency of output signal is
signal determined by the passive components

ELEMENTS OF AN OSCILLATOR
 Tank Circuit

The tank circuit consists of an inductance L connected in parallel with capacitor C. The values
of these two components determine the frequency of the oscillator circuit and hence this is
called as Frequency determining circuit.

Transistor Amplifier

The output of the tank circuit is connected to the amplifier circuit so that the oscillations
produced by the tank circuit are amplified here. Hence the output of these oscillations are
increased by the amplifier.

Feedback Circuit

The function of feedback circuit is to transfer a part of the output energy to LC circuit in
proper phase. This feedback is positive in oscillators.

EXPRESSION FOR GAIN OF AMPLIFIER WITH POSITIVE FEEDBACK(Just for reference.)

• The gain of the amplifier is represented as A. The gain of the amplifier is the ratio of
output voltage Vo to the input voltage Vi. The feedback network extracts a voltage Vf= β
Vo from the output Vo of the amplifier.
• This voltage is added for positive feedback and subtracted for negative feedback, from
the signal voltage Vs.
• So, for a positive feedback,

BARKHAUSEN’S CRITERIA

• To obtain sustained oscillation in any sinusoidal oscillator , Barkhausen Criteria must be

followed.
• The equation of gain of the feedback amplifier with positive feedback is given by

Af= A / (1−Aβ)
 Where Aβ is the feedback factor or the loop gain.

• If loop gain Aβ = 1, Af = ∞. Thus the gain becomes infinity, i.e., there is output without any
input.
• The total phase shift around the loop is 0 or 360degree.

CLASSIFICATION OF OSCILLATOR

CLASSIFCATION OF SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATOR(Explain classification of sinusoidal oscillators)

(i) LC Tuned Oscillators

(a) Tuned Collector Oscillator

(b) Colpitts Oscillator

(c ) Hartley Oscillator

(ii) RC Oscillator

(a) RC Phase shift Oscillator

(b) Wein Bridge oscillator

(iii) Crystal Oscillator

RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

• It consists of a conventional single stage amplifier and an RC phase shift network.

• In the circuit diagram resistor R1 and the resistor R (close to the base of Q1 in the diagram)
gives a voltage divider bias to the transistor Q1.
• Resistor ‘Rc’ limits the collector current while ‘Re’ is meant for thermal stability. ‘Ce’ is the
emitter by-pass capacitor and ‘Cout’ is the output DC decoupling capacitor.
• Each section of the ‘Rc’ network produces a phase shift of 60 degree so that the total phase
shift produced by the RC network is 180 degree. The frequency of oscillations is given by
 1
𝑓=
2𝜋𝑅𝐶√6
• When the circuit is switched ON it produces oscillations. The output of the amplifier is
feedback to the RC feedback network.
• This network produces a phase shift of 180 degree and the phase shifted voltage is applied
to the base of the transistor amplifier.
• The transistor amplifier produces a further phase shift of 180 and thus a total 360 degree
phase shift is obtained.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• It does not require • It is difficult for the circuit to start
transformers/inductors. oscillations as the feedback is generally
• It can be used to produce very low small
frequencies. • The circuit gives a small output.
• Good frequency stability
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

• Crystal oscillator is modified Colpitts Oscillator.

• The only change is the addition of the crystal in the feedback network. The crystal will
act as a parallel tuned circuit.
• The crystal act as inductor and form tuned circuit with C1 and C2. 180 phase shift is
given by the capacitor voltage divider and frequency of oscillation is set by the crystal.
• The feed back is given to transistor in CE configuration which again produce 180 phase
shift.

MULTIVIBRATOR

• It is an electronic circuit that generates square waves or pulses.

• It is basically a two stage amplifier with positive feedback.
• The feed back is given in such a way that one transistor is driven to saturation and the
other is cut off.

CLASSIFICATION OF MULTIVIBRATOR

1. Astable Multivibrator

2. Monostable Multi vibrator

3. Bistable Multi vibrator

1.ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
 • 𝑅𝑐1 , 𝑅𝑐2 −
Collector resistances of T1 and T2 respectively
• 𝑅𝐵1 , 𝑅𝐵2 −
Biasing resistances of T1 and T2 respectively.
• C1 and C2 are the coupling capacitors.

• For symmetrical stable multi vibrator 𝑅𝐵1 = 𝑅𝐵2

and 𝑅𝑐1 = 𝑅𝑐2

and C1 =C2.

• The two transistors T1 and T2 provide feed back to one another.

• The collector of transistor T1 is connected to base of transistor T2 through C1 and vice versa.
• When the supply Vcc is connected ,one of the transistors will start conducting heavily than
the other(due to difference in parameters).
• Assume T1 starts conducting first: Its collector current rises rapidly, hence collector voltage
decreases.
• This low voltage is fed to the base of T2 through C1, which is in turn driven to cut off, so the
collector voltage of T2 rises towards Vcc.
• This voltage is fed to the base of T1 via C2 which in turn drives the T1 to saturation
• Thus T1 is ON and T2 is OFF thus Vc2 gives a high voltage and Vc1=0
• During this time C1 charges through RB1, when this voltage exceeds 0.7V T2 starts
conducting. Its collector voltage Vc2 drops which in turn drives T1 to cut off. Thus T2
becomes ON and T1 OFF.
•

BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
 • It consists of two CE amplifier stages with the output of one fed back to the input of the
other.
• When Vcc is applied one transistor will start conducting slightly ahead of the other due
to differences in characteristics of the transistor.
• Assume Q1 is turned ON and Q2 is cut OFF. The circuit remains in this state until a
trigger pulse is applied.
A positive trigger pulse is applied to the base of Q2.
• Q2 conducts , which results in decrease of Forward bias to Q1, hence its collector
current decreases and collector voltage increases. This voltage is fed to the base of Q2.
So Q2 is driven to saturation and Q1 to cut OFF.
• The circuit will remain in this stable state till a positive pulse at Q1 is applied.

APPLICATIONS

ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

• Square Wave generator , Voltage to • In timing circuits as a frequency divider
frequency converter, Pulse • In Counting Circuits
synchronization, and as clock for binary • In computer memory circuits.
logic signals.
• In digital voltmeters and SMPS.
• Can be operated as an oscillator over
wide range of audio and radio
frequencies.

APPLICATIONS OF OSCILLATORS(Study at least RC and Crystal oscillators applications)

• RC Phase shift Oscillators

i. Audio Signal Generators

ii. Function Generators

iii. All Audio Applications

iv. Laboratory Works.

• LC Oscillators( Hartley, Colpitts and tuned Collector Oscillators)

i RF Generators.

ii. Radio and TV receivers as a local oscillator

iii. High frequency heating ie Induction and dielectric heating.

iv. All high frequency applications

• Crystal Oscillators are used in

i. Communication Transmitters and receivers

ii Digital Clocks

iii Computers

iv Radio frequency generators