MIT Art, Design and Technology University

MIT School of Computing, Pune

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Class: First Year Engineering
Subject : Electrical and Electronics Engineering (23CSE1004)

Unit-II –Electrical Machines

Prof. T.S.Mote

AY 2024-2025 SEM-I
 MIT School of Computing
Unit-II Syllabus
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

• Main Topic-1: Electromechanical energy conversion: Types of ac and dc motors,

Characteristics and applications, ac generators.

• Main Topic-2: Single phase transformer: Construction, principle of working, emf

PLD

equation, ratios, regulation, losses, efficiency, condition for maximum efficiency

• Main Topic-3: Introduction to O.C & S.C. test, Introduction to auto-transformer

and instrument transformer

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 MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Course Learning Objectives/ Outcomes :

1. To study electrical Motor and Generator .

2. To study the characteristics and working of Transformer .

PLD

3. Understand fundamental concepts of electromechanical energy conversion

for operation of electrical Machines.
4. Understand fundamental concepts of electromechanical energy conversion
for operation of Transformers.
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 Electromechanical Energy Conversion

• Electromechanical energy conversion (EMC) means conversion of energy

one form to another form.

• Electromechanical device converts electrical energy into mechanical

energy and vice versa.

• Energy conversation take place through the medium of electric field or

magnetic field.

• Electromechanical energy conversion is a reversible process except for

the losses in the system.
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 Electromechanical Energy Conversion
• Its state that the energy neither be created nor be destroyed. It can only be
converted from one form to the another form of energy.

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 Principal of Energy Conversion
• An electromechanical energy conversion device is the device that converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy or, mechanical energy into electrical energy.
• Electromechanical energy conversion takes place via the medium of a magnetic field or an
electric field, but most practical converters use magnetic field as the coupling medium
between electrical and mechanical systems, this is because the electric storing capacity of
the magnetic field is much higher than that of the electric field.
• Electromechanical energy converters are either gross-motion devices such as microphones,
loudspeakers, electromagnetic relays, and certain electrical measuring instruments, etc. DC,
induction and synchronous machines are used extensively for electromechanical energy
conversion.
• When the conversion takes place from electrical to mechanical form, the device is called
the motor, and when the mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy, the device is
called a generator.
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• Energy transfer equation for generator action can be written as,

Mechanical Energy Input = Electrical Energy Output + Losses in Field +

Total Energy Losses

• Energy transfer equation for motoring action can be written as,

Electrical Energy Input = Mechanical Energy Output + Stored Energy by

Filed + Total Energy Losses

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Types of Electrical Machines

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Definition:
AC Motors
The motor that converts the AC into mechanical power by using an electromagnetic
induction phenomenon is called an AC motor.

Working Principal
The basic working principle of AC motor is the rotating
magnetic field (RMF) generated by the stator winding
when an alternating current is passed through it. The
rotor (having its own magnetic field) follows the RMF
& starts rotation. The stator and the rotor are the two most important parts of the AC motors.
The stator is the stationary part of the motor, and the rotor is the rotating part of the
motor. The AC motor may be single phase or three phase. 9
 Construction of AC motors
Stator :- Electricity is supplied directly to the stator’s outer coils in
AC motors. Multiple plates comprising copper magnetic wire protrude out from the centre of the
stator
Rotor:- A rotor is a central component of a motor that is fixed to the shaft. The most common
type of rotor used in an AC motor is the squirrel cage rotor. A squirrel-cage rotor is cylindrical
and is made by stacking thin steel laminations.
Shaft:-The shaft is the rotating part of the motor
that connects the rotor to the load. The shaft is
typically made of steel and it is supported by
bearings at each end.
Bearings:-The bearings support the shaft and
allow it to rotate freely. The bearings are
typically made of steel or bronze.
Enclosure :- The enclosure protects the motor
from the environment. The enclosure is typically
made of metal or plastic. 10
Advantages of AC Motor
❖ Low power demand on start
❖ Controlled acceleration
❖ Adjustable operational speed
❖ Controlled starting current
❖ Adjustable torque limit
❖ Reduced power line disturbances

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Applications of Single Phase Induction Motor
These are used in low power applications and widely used in domestic
applications as well as industrial mentioned below:

• Pumps, Compressors

• Small fans, Mixers, Toys

• High speed vacuum cleaners

• Electric shavers

• Drilling machines
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Applications of Three Phase Induction Motor
Three-Phase Induction Motor:
• Self-starting
• Use no capacitor,
• start winding,
• No centrifugal switch or other starting device.
• Used in industry and domestic appliances
• rugged in construction requiring hardly any maintenance,
• comparatively cheap, and
• require supply only to the stator.
Some application are mentioned below:
❑ Lifts, Cranes, Hoists
❑ Large capacity exhaust fans
❑ Driving lathe machines
❑ Crushers, Oil extracting mills
❑ Textile and etc. 13
 DC Motor
Definition:
A DC motor is an electrical machine that
converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. In a DC motor, the input electrical
energy is the direct current which is
transformed into the mechanical rotation.

Working principle:
When a current-carrying conductor is kept in
a magnetic field, gains torque and develops a
tendency to move. In short, when electric
fields and magnetic fields interact, a
mechanical force arises.
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 Construction Of DC
Armature or Rotor:- The armature of a DC motor is a cylinder
of magnetic laminations that are insulated from one another. The
armature is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The
armature is a rotating part that rotates on its axis and is separated
from the field coil by an air gap.
Field Coil or Stator :- A DC motor field coil is a non-moving
part on which winding is wound to produce a magnetic field.
This electro-magnet has a cylindrical cavity between its poles.
Commutator and Brushes:- The primary function of a
commutator is to supply electrical current to the armature
winding. These brushes conduct electric current from the
external circuit to the rotating commutator. Hence, we come to
understand that the commutator and the brush unit are
concerned with transmitting the power from the static electrical
circuit to the mechanically rotating region or the rotor. 15
 Types of DC motor
Shunt DC Motor
Here, the field is connected in parallel with the
armature windings or also known as a shunt. The shunt
field can be separately excited from the armature
windings and that is the reason it can be used for
greater speed regulation and can also offer very
simplified reverse control.

Series DC Motor
Here, a large wire carrying the full armature current
winds the field with few turns. This kind of motor
generates a large amount of starting torque but
the speed cannot be regulated here. If they are
run with no load then it might face damage. These
are not the ideal option for variable speed applications.
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Characteristics DC Series & Shunt Motor

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 Applications of DC Motor

Type of Motor Properties Applications

DC Shunt Motor -Approximately constant speed -Constant speed line shafting lathes
-Speed can be adjusted easily. -Centrifugal pumps
-Medium starting torque (up to 1.5 F.L. --Machine tools
torque) --Blowers and Fans
--Reciprocating pumps
DC series Motor -Variable speed -Traction work
-Speed can be adjusted easily. -Electrical locomotives
-Very high starting torque -Elevators
-Conveyors
-Heavy planers
-Rolling Mills
-Printing press
-Compressors
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Advantages of dc motor
1. DC motors have simpler installation and maintenance.
2. DC motors are typically more efficient and make better use of their input energy.
3. They have high startup power
4. They have high starting torque; it’s as high as 500% compared to normal operating
torque.
5. They have fast response times to starting, stopping, and acceleration.

Disadvantages of dc motors
1. High initial cost.
2. Its operation cost and maintenance cost is very high due to the presence of
commutator and brush gear.
3. Risk in commutation failure because due to the sparking occurs at brush it cannot
operate in explosive and hazard conditions. 19
✓ Transformer
❑ A transformer is a static device which transfer electrical energy from one
circuit to another circuit, without change in frequency.

❑ It can increase or decrease the voltage, but with a corresponding decrease or

increase in current.

❑ It works on the principle of mutual induction.

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✓ Application of Transformers
❑ To increase voltage before transmitting electrical energy over a long
distance through the conductor & to reduce voltage at the places where it is to
be used.

Rectifiers Starters (Auto Transformer starters) Welding Testing Units

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Principle of working
• When an a.c. Voltage (V1) is applied to Primary winding, then Current I1 will flow in it,
produces an a.c. flux (∅) in the core.
• As per Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction an e.m.f (E1) is induces in the primary
winding.
𝑑𝞿
• E1 = −N1
𝑑𝑡
Where, N1–Is the Number of turns in the primary
winding.
• Induced e.m.f in the primary winding is nearly
equal and opposite to the applied voltage V1.

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• Assuming leakage flux to be negligible, almost the whole flux (𝞅) produced in primary
winding links with the secondary winding.
• Hence an e.m.f induced in secondary winding is given by

𝑑𝞿
E2 = −N2
𝑑𝑡
Where N2– Is the Number of turns in the Secondary winding.
• If the secondary circuit is closed through the load, a current I2 flows in the secondary
winding.
• Thus energy is transferred from the primary winding to the secondary winding .

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24
Conservator
Its function is to expand the oil in the oil tank when the oil
temperature rises due to the increase of the load of the transformer.

Breather
The breather is used in the transformer to filter out the moisture from the air.

Core
The transformer core ensures efficient magnetic coupling between the windings, facilitating the
transfer of electrical energy from the primary side to the secondary side.

Winding
Transformers have two windings, being the primary winding and the secondary winding. The
primary winding is the coil that draws power from the source. The secondary winding is the
coil that delivers the energy at the transformed or changed voltage to the load.

Tank
It is used to hold, protect, cool the winding and core in one Electrical distributor 25
✓ Types of Transformer

According to type of application

According to type
of supply

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Core Type Transformer
A core type transformer is the one in which the primary and secondary windings encircle
the core of the transformer. The windings are surrounding the core. That is why, they are
called as core type transformer. The part where the winding is done is also known as the
limb. Both the windings are mounted on separate limbs of the core. As you can see, there is
only single flux path in the circuit.

Also, it is to be noted that two types of

windings are present on each of the
primary and secondary ones – low voltage
(LV) and high voltage (HV). In the below
image, green one is LV winding and red
one is HV winding.

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 Shell Type Transformer
A shell type transformer is the one in which the core of the transformer encircles the
windings ,the core is surrounding the primary and secondary windings. That is why, they
are called as shell type transformer.

Both the windings are wound on a central limb of the core. As you can see, there is two
flux paths in the circuit. The central limb carries the whole magnetic flux; and the other
two side limbs carry half of the flux.

HV and LV winding mounting is same as

discussed earlier in core type transformers.
The red winding in the second image below is
primary and the green winding is secondary
winding.

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 Comparison Chart
Basis for
Core Type Transformer Shell Type Transformer
Comparison

Definition The winding surround the core. The core surround the winding.

The lamination is cut in the form Lamination are cut in the form
Lamination Shape
of the L strips. of the long strips of E and L.
Cross-section may be square, The cross section is rectangular
Cross Section
cruciform and three stepped in shape.

Copper Require More Less

Concentric Winding or
Other Name Sandwich or Disc Winding
Cylindrical Winding.

Limb Two Three

Insulation More Less

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✓ E.M.F Equation of Transformer
The quantities which affect the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. are :
Φ = Flux
Φm = Maximum value of flux
N1 = Number of primary winding turns
N2 = Number of secondary winding turns
f = Frequency of the supply voltage
E1 = R.M.S. value of the primary induced e.m.f.
E2 = R.M.S. value of the secondary induced e.m.f.

From Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction the average e.m.f. induced in each turn is
proportional to the average rate of change of flux.

Average e.m.f. per turn = Average rate of change of flux = dΦ/dt

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Now,
dΦ/dt = [Change in flux] / [Time required for change in flux]
Consider the 1/4th cycle of the flux as shown in the Fig.
In 1/4th time period, the change in flux is from 0 to Φm
dΦ/dt = [Φm- 0] / [1/4f]
= 4 * f * Φm ……Wb/Sec- as dt for 1/4th time period is 1/4f seconds
Average e.m.f. per turn = 4 * f * Φm volts

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For sinusoidal quantity,
Form Factor = [R.M.S. value] / [Average value] = 1.11
R.M.S. value = 1.11 Average value
R.M.S. value of induced e.m.f. per turn = 1.11 × 4 × 𝑓 × Φ𝑚 = 4.44 𝑓 Φ𝑚
There are N1 number of primary turns hence the R.M.S. value of induced e.m.f. of primary
denoted as E1 is, E1 = N1 4.44 f Φm Volts
While as there are N2 number of secondary turns the R.M.S. value of induced e.m.f. of
secondary denoted E2 is, E2 = N2 4.44 f Φm Volts

The expressions of E1 and E2 are called e.m.f. equations of a transformer.

E1 = 4.44 f Φm N1 volts------(1)
E2 = 4.44 f Φm N2 volts------(2) 32
Transformer Ratios
Turns Ratio: Turns Ratio of a transformer is defined as the
ratio of the number of turns in the Primary to the number of
turns in the Secondary.
Voltage Ratio: The voltage ratio is defined as the ratio of the
Primary voltage of the transformer to the secondary voltage.
Transformation Ratio: The transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of output voltage to the
input voltage of the transformer.

For ideal transformer

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Numerical

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2

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3.

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4.

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Transformer Rating
➢ The power rating of a transformer is the maximum amount of power that it can
handle. It is usually expressed in kilovolt-amperes (kVA) or megavolt-amperes
(MVA).
➢ kVA stands for Kilovolt-Ampere and is the rating normally used to rate a
transformer. The size of a transformer is determined by the kVA of the load. In
many circumstances the power required by the load is equivalent to the rating
of the transformer expressed in either VA or kVA.
➢ Iron loss of a transformer depends on voltage and copper loss of a transformer
depends on current. Hence, total transformer heat loss depends on volt-ampere
(VA) and independent of phase angle among voltage and current i.e., it is
independent of power factor. That is why the rating of the transformer is in
kVA and not in kW.
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39
40
 Losses
1. Core Losses - Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss,
Both depend upon magnetic properties of the materials used to construct the core
of transformer and its design. So these losses in transformer are fixed and do not
depend upon the load current. So core losses in transformer which is alternatively
known as iron loss in transformer can be considered as constant for all range of
load.
Hysteresis loss in transformer is denoted as,

Eddy current loss in transformer is denoted as,

Where, Kh = Hysteresis constant.

Ke = Eddy current constant.
Kf = form constant. 41
2.Copper Loss or Loss
Power loss in a transformer that occurs in both the primary and secondary
windings due to their Ohmic resistance is called copper loss or I2R loss. We
usually represent the copper loss by PC. Therefore, the total copper loss in a
transformer is the sum of power loss in the primary winding and power loss in the
secondary winding, i.e.,

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Transformer Efficiency

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Example #1
A 150 kVA transformer is tested and found to have core losses of 800 W.
It also has copper losses of 1800 W in the primary coil and 2000 W in the secondary coil. Find
the transformer efficiency.
Solution :-
Example # 2
- A 50 kVA, 3300/330 V, single phase transformer has iron loss and full load copper loss 400 W and
600 W respectively. Calculate the efficiency at half full load and 0.9 p.f. Also calculate the load at
which the efficiency is maximum Solution: The efficiency at any load and p.f is given by

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✓ Condition for Maximum Efficiency

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Voltage Regulation

• Change in secondary terminal voltage, when full load at a given

power factor and at rated voltage is thrown off, is expressed as a
percentage of rated terminal voltage.
• The change in secondary terminal voltage from no load to full load
expressed as a percentage of full load voltage.

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Problem 1
A certain transformer has a no-load open-circuit voltage of 120 V and
the voltage drops to 110 when a load is applied. Calculate the percentage
voltage regulation of the transformer.
Solution: -

Problem 2
A single-phase transformer that has a 5% voltage regulation has 115.5 volts at the secondary
terminal when fully loaded. Compute the transformer’s no-load terminal if the load is removed.

Solution: -

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We know that, when the transformer is on no load, the no load current or primary current is
very small, typically 3 to 5 percent of the rated current value. Thus, the copper loss in the
primary winding is negligible.
In OC test, transformer is operated at rated voltage at rated frequency so the maximum
loses will be the flux in the core. Since the iron or core losses are at rated voltage, the
power input is drawn to supply the iron losses by the transformer under no load.

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Short Circuit Test
In this test, the current flow is rated value and
hence no load current is very small and is 3 to
5% of the rated current. In other words, the
voltage applied to the primary winding is
very low, thereby the flux level in the core is
very small. In turn there is negligible core
loss. Therefore, the no load shunt branch is
considered as absent in equivalent circuit of
this test as core loss is negligible.

As the iron or core losses are function of

voltage, these losses are very small.
Therefore, the wattmeter reading shows the
power loss or I2 R loss equal to the full load
copper losses of the whole transformer.
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 Basis of Difference Open Circuit Short Circuit

Definition A break in the conducting path of an electric An unwanted path of very low resistance in an
circuit, it is called open circuit. electric circuit is called short circuit.

Resistance Infinity. Ideally, it is considered infinity. Zero, and ideally it is taken zero.

Circuit current The current flowing through an open circuit is The current flowing through a short circuit is
zero. infinite.

Voltage The voltage across the open circuit is equal to The voltage of a short circuit is ideally zero, because
the voltage of the supply. the resistance of an ideal short circuit is taken zero.

Causes In practice the main causes of an open circuit The causes of short circuit are insulation failure,
are failure of device or component, breaking of shorting of component, etc.
the conducting wire, etc.
Practical applications Open circuit may also be used in a right way, as Sometimes , the short circuits are also used in a
in case of an OFF switch. useful way such as, to short the secondary winding
of a current transformer during maintenance, 50
etc.
Problem: In a 50 KVA Transformer, the iron loss is 500 W and full load copper loss is
800 W. Find the efficiency at full and half loads at 0.8 p.f. lagging.
Given data: Transformer rating = 50KVA, Iron loss 𝑃𝑖= 500W, Full load copper loss
𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 800w Power factor cos Ф = 0.8
To find:
Efficiency at (i) Full load (ii) At half load

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 Auto-Transformer
v
An autotransformer has a single winding with two end terminals and one or more terminals at
intermediate tap points. It is a transformer in which the primary and secondary coils have part
of their turns in common. The portion of the winding shared by both the primary and
secondary is the common section.
Autotransformers are a type of transformer that operates on the principle of electromagnetic
induction. They are commonly used in various electrical applications to turn high voltage into
low voltage or vice versa.

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Step Up Auto transformer

In this type of autotransformer input voltage is stepped up to the desired voltage

and output voltage will depend on the turn ratio of the auto transformer. This is the
connection diagram of Step-up auto transformer:

As we have already discussed consider each loop of

inductor as a battery more loops in the output circuit
mean more ac voltage compared to the input. We
know that the input and output apparent power is
same so if we are going to step-up the voltage then
definitely current will be decreased in order to
maintain the power balance.

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Step Down Auto transformer

Construction is same for both step up and step down autotransformer but in this configuration
primary voltage is high and secondary voltage is low that’s why it is called step down
transformer.

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Advantages of using Auto Transformers

❑ Less amount of copper is required

❑ Due to the smaller size less cost when compared to the two winding

Transformers
❑ Lower leakage reactance

❑ Lower loss

❑ smaller exciting current

❑ better voltage regulation

❑ more efficient since losses are efficient

❑ possibility provide smooth and continuous current' voltages

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Disadvantages of using Auto Transformers

1. Due to the lack of electric circuit isolation

between primary and secondary.
2. Therefore autotransformers should be used
only in applications where electric isolation
between the high voltage side and the low
voltage side does not present a safety hazards

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Applications of Auto Transformers
❑ Compensating voltage drops by boosting supply
voltage in distribution systems.
❑ Auto transformers with a number of tapping are
used for starting induction and synchronous
motors.
❑ Auto transformer is used as variac in laboratory
or where continuous variable over broad ranges are
required.
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 Instrument Transformers
A transformer that is used to measure electrical
quantities like current, voltage, power, frequency and
power factor is known as an instrument transformer.
These transformers are mainly used with relays to
protect the power system.

The Purpose of the instrument transformer is to step

down the voltage & current of the AC system because
the level of voltage & current in a power system is
extremely high. So designing the measuring
instruments with high voltage & current is difficult as
well as expensive.
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Types of Instrument Transformers
•Current Transformer
•Potential Transformer

Current Transformer(CT)

Transform the current from high value to the low

value. A current transformer is a device which is
used for the transformation of current at a higher
value to a lower value with respect to the earth
potential. It is used with the AC instruments for
measuring the high value of current.
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Potential Transformer (PT)
❑ A voltage transformer is the type of
instrument transformer which is used for
the transformation of the voltage from a
higher value to a lower value.

❑ The primary terminal of the potential

transformer is connected to the line for
measuring the line voltage. The potential
transformer reduced the high value of
voltage into the small value which can
easily be measured by the voltmeter.

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Comparison Of CT & PT

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Advantages of Instrument Transformers
1. The large voltage and current of AC Power system can be measured by using small rating
measuring instrument i.e. 5 A, 110 – 120 V.
2. Reduction of cost of measuring instruments.
3. Damaged measuring instruments can be replaced easy with healthy standardized measuring
instruments.
4. Provide electrical isolation between high voltage power circuit and measuring instruments.
5. Reduces the electrical insulation requirement for measuring instruments and protective
circuits and also assures the safety of operators.
6. Several measuring instruments can be connected through a single transformer to power
system.
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 Instrument Transformers

The only disadvantage of instrument transformer is, these can be used

simply for AC circuits but not for DC circuits

Applications
1. To measure the high value of electric current i.e Current
Transformer(CT)
2. For measure high value of electric voltages or potential
difference i.e Potential Transformer(PT)
3. To measure electric power with uses of both CT and PT

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Thank You

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