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constitutes a quality assignment. As Clare (2001) noted constructivist practice consisting

of quality of classroom discussions, level of student participation in classroom

discussions, cognitive challenge of the lesson activities, and quality of instructional

feedback are associated with the quality of classroom assignments (r = 0.57, p < .01)(p.

27). Clare (2001) also found that the quality of lesson implementation, which includes

the level of student engagement in the lesson, clarity of learning goals, and alignment of

the goals and lesson activities, did not significantly associate with classroom assignments

(r = 0.03). The confusion might be between the level of student engagement and the

cognitive level. Teachers might confuse busy and engaged students with those using

higher level thinking skills to complete an assignment.

Furthermore, Cross Curricular Assignments was seen as the fifth most important

aspect in student achievement and significantly more important than Sustained Student

Writing, yet only 47.3% of teachers noted using this in their plans in the past week and it

was used significantly less than Real World Connections, Depth of Knowledge, Using

State Curriculum, and Providing Students with a Performance Standard. Perhaps this is

showing the clash between what teachers think is best and the constraints placed on the

classroom by standards, the district, and other testing related pressures. However, it

could also be a function of teachers having trouble with time and preparing lessons that

are cross curricular as it requires more time to plan and research, especially at the high

school and middle school level. At these levels, particularly, having cross curricular

assignments might include working with other content area teachers to create cross

curricular lessons.
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Finally, it is interesting to note from research question two that 83% of teachers

reported using Creating Quality Assignments in their classrooms in the past week.

However, when looking at the aspects of Creating Quality Assignments given, less that

60% of teachers reported using Adopted Curriculum Materials in Classroom

Assignments, Sustained Writing on Assignments, Student Control Over Assignments,

and Cross Curricular Assignments. This fact raises questions as to what teachers are

doing to create quality assignments. One possibility is that teachers are using other

aspects of Creating Quality Assignments in their lesson planning. If this is the case,

knowing what these aspects are and if they are effective is important. Another possibility

is that teachers are using certain aspects dining lesson planning for quality assignments,

but they are not truly creating quality assignments, and they do not realize the difference.

Recall that Clare (2001) found teachers’ assignments were fairly basic in the area of

cognitive challenge; this finding could be an indication of that trend.

Research Question Four

What aspects o f lesson structure do teachers perceive as having the greatest

impact on student achievement? What aspects o f lesson structure do teachers use when

planning?

Lambert (1988) noted that the “skillful orchestration of objectives, strategies,

materials, and equipment and the careful organization, development, and sequencing of

the lesson are absolutely crucial to successful teaching” (p. 4). With this idea in mind

and knowing that teachers are looking more at content knowledge, sequencing, and

activities when lesson planning and writing lesson plans ahead of objectives (see Clark &
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Yinger, 1979; Kagan & Tippins, 1992; Sanchez & Valcarcel, 1999; Yinger, 1980;

Zahorick, 1975); an examination of teachers’ perceptions of Lesson Structure was vital.

After investigating, research came forth (see Clare, 2001; Good & Brophy, 2004; Jones et

al., 2011; Panasuk & Todd, 2005; Pressley et al., 1998; Wang et al., 1993a; Zahorick,

2003) that gave five aspects of Lesson Structure that impact student achievement

including: (a) Focusing Attention on the Sequence o f a Single Lesson, (b) Focusing

Attention on the Sequence o f Multiple Lessons, (c) Giving Step-by-Step Instructions, (d)

Focusing Attention on the Sequence o f Questions to be Asked by the Teacher, and (e)

Aligning the Learning Objective, Activity, and Assessment. Teachers were asked to rank

these five items based on how they believed them to impact student achievement. A rank

of 1 meant that teachers thought that aspect made the least impact, and a rank of 5 meant

it made the most impact.

Alignment of the Learning Objective, Activity, and Assessment (M = 3.60, SD =

1.64) was ranked as having the biggest impact on student achievement. Sequencing of

Questions to be Asked by the Teacher (M = 2.67, SD = 1.36) was ranked lowest based on

the teachers’ responses. A repeated-measures ANOVA confirmed there were significant

differences and after additional statistical follow up to determine where the significant

differences occurred, it was found that Sequencing of Questions to be Asked by the

Teacher was ranked significantly lower than all the other aspects of Logically Structured

Lessons. This means that teachers perceived this aspect to be significantly less important

than the others on impacting student achievement. It is possible this result is a function

of teachers believing that questions come naturally during the course of teaching and they
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want the freedom to respond authentically to students’ answers. While this point of view

is valid, teachers are losing sight of an important teaching tool. Aside from extracting

knowledge from students; teachers scaffold questioning when asking questions. This

scaffolding can help students leam to ask questions. While it might not be necessary for

teachers to plan all questions to be asked, it is important to plan key questions in a

sequence in order to guide reflective discussions that enhance students’ thinking,

comprehension, and learning (Willen, 1990). Additionally, planning questions helps

teachers not to fall into a routine of asking only one type of question such as memory or

fact questions, which have been found to be predominate in the classroom (Korkmaz,

2009). The only other significant difference found was that Alignment of the Learning

Objective, Activity, and Assessment was ranked significantly higher when compared

with Step-by-Step Instructions. A possible conclusion for this finding is teachers may

use instruction-giving as a means of maintaining classroom order and pace and do not

view it as part of lesson planning.

In addition to giving their perceptions as to the most and least useful aspects in

Lesson Structure, teachers were asked which of the given five aspects they used in their

classroom planning in the past week. Descriptive statistics showed that Alignment of the

Learning Objective, Activity, and Assessment (87.5%)(M =1.12, SD = 0.331) and Step-

by-Step Instructions (84.8%) (M = 1.15, SD = 0.360) were the two aspects reported as

being used the most when structuring a lesson. Alignment of the Learning Objective,

Activity, and Assessment being most used is congruent with what teachers believe is the

most important aspect in impacting student achievement; however, Clare (2001) found
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that most teachers are weak in this area of planning. Therefore, while teachers are

reporting using this aspect of planning Lesson Structure, the quality of the alignment is

unknown.

The use of Step-by-Step Instructions differs greatly from what teachers noted as

the aspects having the most impact on student achievement. Alignment of the Learning

Objective, Activity, and Assessment was ranked significantly higher than Step-by-Step

Instructions in the first part of research question four, but was then reported as being the

second most used aspect by a high percentage of teachers—significantly more than

Sequencing a Single Lesson and Sequencing of Questions to be Asked by the Teacher. A

reason for this result could be that while teachers do not see the impact of Step-by-Step

Instructions when it comes to student achievement, using Step-by-Step Instructions in the

classroom helps with the dynamic nature of teaching. Step-by-Step Instructions are a

practical way for teachers to ensure all students understand what is being asked of them.

While teachers may not see this as particularly beneficial when it comes to student

achievement, it does help with classroom management and organization, which are also

important in ensuring student achievement (Danielson, 2007; Davis & Thomas, 1998;

Marzano, 2007; Stronge, 2007).

Sequencing of Questions to be Asked by the Teacher (52.7%)(M = 1.47, SD =

0.501) was the aspect of Lesson Structure used the least, which aligns with what teachers

ranked as the aspect having the least impact on student achievement. After examining

the descriptive statistics it was found that Sequencing of Questions to be Asked by the

Teacher was used significantly less than all other aspects. Again, this could possibly be