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to follow. An effective teacher should then be able to plan in a manner that understands

the complexities of teaching and learning using a variety of skills and understanding to

meet the needs of all students. As scholars have reported “carefully planned, fine-tuned

lessons reflect an understanding of many different teaching techniques” (Orlich, Harder,

Callahan, Trevisan, & Brown, 2004, p. 15). Effective teachers are effective planners as it

would be difficult to carry out effective instruction without having a concrete solid plan

beforehand. This plan would be based on the teacher’s knowledge of the students, the

content, the resources, and the instructional strategies available. Marshall (2012) says the

depth of instructional planning comes from inquiry into the whys of children’s actions

and responses, and the hows of supporting each child. Thompson and Stryker (2010)

state that “effective planning processes combined with appropriate teaching techniques

lead to high quality learning experiences at all educational levels” (p. 187).

In Yinger’s (1980) study of teacher planning, he found that an interesting

characteristic emerged: Routines played a major role in the teacher’s planning. Routines

were used by the teacher to regulate activities and to simplify planning. In fact he found

that routines were so much a part of planning that he described the planning “as decision­

making about the selection, the organization, and the sequencing of routines” (p. 111). If

planning can be described simply as coordinating many routines, then the development

and use of routines by teachers must be important to the planning process, which is in

turn, a quality of effective teachers. Hattie (2003) also discusses routines and the need for

teachers to have routines in order to be experts. Listed under the dimension of

Monitoring and Providing Feedback, Hattie (2003) determined that expert teachers are
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more automatic than non-expert teachers. The difference between expert teachers and

experienced teachers in the area of automaticity is that expert teachers use “automaticity

so as to free working memory to deal with other more complex characteristics of the

situation, whereas experienced non-experts do not optimize the opportunities gained from

automaticity” (Hattie, 2003, p. 8). With this finding, the use of routines and how they

free a teacher are important to teacher effectiveness in planning. Expert teachers take the

time saved and put it into the act of teaching (Hattie, 2003).

Statement of the Problem

The problem investigated in this study is the lesson planning differences among

teachers. While it has been found that effective teachers matter in terms of student

success, and that key aspects of effectiveness are planning and the decisions made by a

teacher, there is a lack of understanding as to the differences in planning among teachers

and how to best impact teachers’ lesson planning.

Statement of Purpose

The purpose of the study was to determine which of the seven elements of

effective planning identified by Stronge (2007), teachers perceive as having the greatest

impact on student achievement. In addition, the study explored the similarities and

differences in teacher planning using the seven qualities of effective planning identified

by Stronge (2007) in order to understand what teachers think the important aspects of

planning for effectiveness are and if this differs depending on various descriptive data

including region, level taught, gender, and years’ experience.

Research Questions

1) Which of the following seven lesson planning elements do teachers perceive as

having the greatest impact on student achievement: Clear Lesson and Learning

Objectives, Creating Quality Assignments, Logically Structured Lessons,

Instructional Strategies, Timing, Learning Differences, and Developing Age and

Content Appropriate Lessons?

2) Which of the following seven lesson planning elements are reported by teachers as

being used and with what level of relative importance: Clear Lesson and Learning

Objectives, Creating Quality Assignments, Logically Structured Lessons,

Instructional Strategies, Timing, Learning Differences, and Developing Age and

Content Appropriate Lessons?

3) What aspects of creating a quality assignment do teachers perceive as having the

greatest impact on student achievement? What aspects of creating a quality

assignment do teachers use when planning?

4) What aspects of lesson structure do teachers perceive as having the greatest impact on

student achievement? What aspects of lesson structure do teachers use when

planning?

5) Is there a difference in teachers’ perceptions regarding which lesson planning

elements have the greatest impact on student achievement when considering: (a)

elementary school, middle school, or high school level; (b) content areas such as

science, social studies, language arts, mathematics; (c) region of the United States;

(d) rural, urban, or suburban areas; (e) years of experience; and (f) gender?
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6) What method of lesson planning do teachers use most prominently? For teachers

who use formal written lesson plans, how many times per day do they reference the

written plans?

Significance of the Study

The results from this study could be used to inform those in education about this

particular aspect of teacher effectiveness. It might help identify what teachers perceive as

being important in the planning process as opposed to what the research states.

Additionally, the study could help administrators as they examine lesson plans, as they

discuss planning with teachers, and as they discuss time management with teachers. It

might impact the knowledge administrators have about planning to help focus more

attention on this aspect of the teaching profession. Finally, the study may shed light on

the disconnect between what the literature says concerning what teachers who plan

effectively should do and the reality of what teachers perceive are effective planning

strategies. This will help as administrators plan for staff development and making a

connection between research and practice.

Definitions of Key Terms

Assignments: Assignments are comprised of activities that students work on

independently after teaching has taken place. Students complete assignments in the

classroom.
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Child-managed activity: This term differs from child-centered in this study and is

defined as an activity that allows the students or child to manage their own attention

(Cameron, Connor & Morrison, 2005).

Curriculum Standards: Also termed Curriculum Goals by some and defined as

part of the Curriculum designing process that is the result of answering the question

“What destination do you have in mind for learners as far as a particular curriculum or

subject is concerned” (Omstein & Hunkins, 2009, p. 225). Goals are derived from aims

and indicate “what a particular subject or educational program should teach students”

(Omstein & Hunkins, 2009, p.225).

Depth o f Knowledge: This pertains to the extent to which teachers require

students to “demonstrate mastery of knowledge in day-to-day classroom assignments or

assessment tasks” (Koh & Luke, 2009).

Instructional Strategies: Also referred to as Instructional Activities by some

researchers, these are the various choices educators have in determining what the students

could do or participate in to learn a concept (Danielson, 2007).

Planning: Clark and Yinger (1979) described planning as “a process of preparing

a framework for guiding teacher action, a process strongly oriented toward particular

action” (p. 9-10).

Planning Decisions: Peterson, Marx, and Clark (1978) defined planning decisions

as the decisions a teacher makes “prior to the act of teaching” (p. 418).