LATICE OR GRID STRUCTURES

INTRODUCTION A space frame or grid structure is a truss-like, lightweight rigid structure constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern. Space frames usually utilize a multidirectional span, and are often used to accomplish long spans with few supports. They derive their strength from the inherent rigidity of the triangular frame; flexing loads (bending moments) are transmitted as tension and compression loads along the length of each strut. Most often their geometry is based on platonic solids. The simplest form is a horizontal slab of interlocking square pyramids built from aluminium or tubular steel struts. In many ways this looks like the horizontal jib of a tower crane repeated many times to make it wider. A stronger purer form is composed of interlocking tetrahedral pyramids in which all the struts have unit length. More technically this is referred to as an isotropic vector matrix or in a single unit width an octet truss. More complex variations change the lengths of the struts to curve the overall structure or may incorporate other geometrical shapes. Space frames are an increasingly common architectural technique especially for large roof spans in modernist commercial and industrial buildings.

MATERIALS USED IN SPACE FRAMES Timber

The application of timber to space frames construction has not been fully developed. The main problem in applying to space frame is one of connection between timber members in several planes. One solution is to use three lattice girders and connect them by metal lugs at the nodes.

Steel
They may be constructed of cold-rolled sections angle or tubes riveted, bolted or welded together or to suitably shaped gusset plates or connectors. Tubes are suitable since they, may be more easily joined a t any angle, and due to their better performance in compression will produce lighter structures, particularly over large spans.

Concrete
The development of pre-casting techniques have made possible the use of concrete members of comparatively light weight and small cross sectional area which may be used in the construction of space frames. The members may be connected together with site bolting and grouting in of reinforcement in situ.

Aluminium
The direct stressing of members and the inherent resistance to torsion in space frames makes them suited to construction in aluminium. Rods or round and rectangular tubes are commonly used, often together with specially extruded sections.

ADVANTAGES OF SPACE FRAMES

1. One of the most important advantages of a space frame structure is its light weight. It is mainly due to fact that material is distributed spatially in such a way that the load transfer mechanism is primarily axialtension or compression. Consequently, all material in any given element is utilized to its full extent. Furthermore, most space frames are now constructed with steel or aluminum, which decreases considerably their self-weight. This is especially important in the case of long span roofs that led to a number of notable examples of applications. 2. The units of space frames are usually mass produced in the factory so that they can take full advantage of an industrialized system of construction. Space frames can be built from simple prefabricated units, which are often of standard size and shape. Such units can be easily transported and rapidly assembled on site by semi-skilled labor. Consequently, space frames can be built at a lower cost. 3. A space frame is usually sufficiently stiff in spite of its lightness. This is due to its three-dimensional character and to the full participation of its constituent elements. Engineers appreciate the inherent rigidity and great stiffness of space frames and their exceptional ability to resist unsymmetrical or heavy concentrated load. Possessing greater rigidity, the space frames also allow greater flexibility in layout and positioning of columns. 4. Space frames possess a versatility of shape and form and can utilize a standard module to generate various flat space grids, latticed shell, or even free-form shapes. Architects appreciate the visual beauty and the impressive simplicity of lines in space frames. A trend is very noticeable in which the structural members are left exposed as a part of the architectural expression. Desire for openness for both visual impact as well as the ability to accommodate variable space requirements always calls for space frames as the most favorable solution.

DISADVANTAGES OF SPACE FRAMES: 1. Special formwork is required 2. Bracing, scaffolding, cranes required to put the members in place 3. Initial cost of construction is high.

COMPONENT OF SPACE FRAME

A space frame consists of axial members, which are preferably tubes, also known as circular hollow sections or rectangular hollow sections and connectors, which join the members together. Other structural sections such as I- and H sections are also occasionally used, especially if loads that are transferred to the members between the members cause bending in addition to axial forces. Where loads are applied only at nodes, circular and rectangular hollow sections have an edge over other section types because they are more efficient in compression, offering a higher radius of gyration for the same area. Circular hollow sections have the further advantage that their moments of inertia are the same in all direction. FLAT GRIDS They may be single layer or double layer grids Single layer flat grids It is in fact a two dimensional structure, but is considered here because of its grid nature and certain charateristics which it has incommon with double-layer grids,particularly the ability to disperse heavy concentrated loads throughout all the membersof the grid. It has two or more sets of parallel beams intersecting at right or oblique angles and the beams are rigidly connected at all intersections which prduces bending or torsion of all members. The interconnected beams may be arranged in various layouts and the bounderies of the grid may be rectangulr or circular. The rectangular grid although widely used, is not the most efficient in terms of stress distribution since there are no members in the corners and these are infact the most highly stressed zones in a rectangular slab. Triangular or three-way grids are extremly string and lead to very uniform stress distribution in the structure, and a very uniform distribution is also obtained in hexagonal grids. These layouts are used for the larger span within the economic range of 50-80ft. Depth/span ratios as low as one-thritieth for rectangular grids and only one-forthieth for diagonal grids are often possible. Double layer flat grids Types and Geometry Double-layer grids, or flat surface space frames, consist of two planar networks of members forming the top and bottom-layers parallel to each other and interconnected by vertical and inclined web members. Double-layer grids are characterized by hinged joints with no moment or torsional resistance; therefore, all members can only resist tension or compression. Even in the case of connection by comparatively rigid joints, the influence of bending or torsional moment is insignificant. Double-layer grids are usually composed of basic elements such as: 1. Planar latticed truss. 2. A pyramid with a square base that is essentially a part of an octahedron. 3. A pyramid with a triangular base (tetrahedron).

The basic elements used for various types of double-layer grids are shown in Figure 24.3. Several types of double-layer grids can be formed by these basic elements. They are developed by varying the direction of the top and bottom-layers with respect to each other and also by the positioning of the toplayer nodal points with respect to the bottomlayer nodal points. Additional variations can be introduced by changing the size of the top-layer grid with respect to the bottomlayer grid. Thus, internal openings can be formed by omitting every second element in a normal configuration. According to the form of basic elements, double-layer grids can be divided in two groups, latticed grids and space grids. The latticed grids consist of intersecting vertical latticed trusses and form a regular grid. Two parallel grids are similar in design, with one layer directly over the top of another. Both top and bottom grids are directionally the same. The space grids consist of a combination of square or triangular pyramids. This group covers the so-called offset grids, which consist of parallel grids having an identical layout with one grid offset from the other in plane but remaining directionally the same, as well as the so-called differential grids in which two parallel top and bottom grids are of a different layout but are chosen to coordinate and form a regular pattern. The type of double-layer grid can be chosen from the following most commonly used framing systems, which are shown in Figure 24.4a through j. In Figure 24.4, top chord members are depicted with heavy solid lines, bottom chords are depicted with light solid lines, and web members are depicted with dashed lines, while the upper joints are depicted by hollow circles and the bottom joints by solid circles. Different types of double-layer grids are grouped and named according to their composition, and the names in the parentheses indicate those suggested by other authors.

Group 1: composed of latticed trusses A. Two-way orthogonal latticed grids (square on square) (Figure 24.4a). This type of latticed grid has the advantage of simplicity in configuration and in joint detail. All chord members are of the same length and lie in two planes that intersect at 90_ to each other. Because of its weak torsional strength, horizontal bracings are usually established along the perimeters. B. Two-way diagonal latticed grids (Figure 24.4b). The layout of the latticed grid is exactly the same as in type 1, except that it is offset by 45_ from the edges. The latticed trusses have different spans along two directions at each intersecting joint. Since the depth is all the same, the stiffness of each latticed truss varies according to its span. The latticed trusses of shorter span may be considered as a kind of support for latticed trusses of longer span, hence more spatial action is obtained. 3. Three-way latticed grids (Figure 24.4c). All chord members intersect at 60_ to each other and form equilateral triangular grids. It is a stiff and efficient system that is adaptable to odd shapes like circular and hexagonal plans. The joint detail is complicated by numerous members intersecting at one point, with 13 members in extreme cases. 4. One-way latticed grids (Figure 24.4d). It is composed of a series of mutually inclined latticed trusses to form a folded shape. There are only chord members along the spanning direction, therefore onewaaction is predominant. As in type 1, horizontal bracings are necessary along the perimeters to increase the integral stiffness.

Group 2A: composed of square pyramids 5. Orthogonal square pyramid space grids (square on square offset) (Figure 24.4e). This is one of the most commonly used framing patterns with top-layer square grids offset over bottom layer grids. In addition to the equal length of both top and bottom chord members, if the angle between the diagonal and chord members is 45_, then all members in the space grids will have the same length. The basic element is a square pyramid that is used in some proprietary systems as prefabricated units to form this type of space grid. 6. Orthogonal square pyramid space grids with openings (square on square offset with internal openings, square on larger square) (Figure 24.4f). The framing pattern is similar to that of type 5, except that the inner square pyramids are removed alternatively to form larger grids in the bottom-layer. This modification will reduce the total number of members and consequently the weight. It is also visually effective as the extra openness of the space grids network produces an impressive architectural effect. Skylights can be used with this system. 7. Differential square pyramid space grids (square on diagonal) (Figure 24.4g). This is a typical example of differential grids. The two planes of the space grids are at 45_ to each other, which will increase the torsional stiffness effectively. The grids are arranged orthogonally in the top layer and diagonally in the bottom-layer. It is one of the most efficient framing systems with shorter top chord members to resist compression and longer bottom chords to resist tension. Even with the removal of a large number of members, the system is still structurally stable and esthetically pleasing. 8. Diagonal square pyramid space grids (diagonal square on square with internal openings, diagonal on square) (Figure 24.4h). This type of space grid is also of the differential layout but with a reverse pattern from type 7. It is composed of square pyramids connected at their apices with fewer members intersecting at the node. The joint detail is relatively simple since there are only six members connecting at the top chord joint and eight members at the bottom chord joint.

Group 2B: composed of triangular pyramids 9. Triangular pyramid space grids (triangle on triangle offset) (Figure 24.4i). Triangular pyramids are used as basic elements and connected at their apices, thus forming a pattern of top-layer triangular grids offset over bottom-layer grids. If the depth of the space grids is equal top23 chord length, then all members will have the same length. 10. Triangular pyramid space grids with openings (triangle on triangle offset with internal openings(Figure 24.4j). Like type 6, the inner triangular pyramids may also be removed alternatively. As in the figure shown, triangular grids are formed in the top-layer, while triangular and hexagonal grids are formed in the bottom-layer. The pattern in the bottom-layer may be varied depending on the ways of removal. This type of space grids has a good open feeling, and the contrast of the patterns is effective.

FOLDED GRIDS
These are space grids in the form of bent or folded diagonal plane grids, the folds usually corresponding to the valleys and ridges of the roof as shown in the fig a. The folded grid is therefore a series of continuous intersecting beams cranked at the folds. Folded grid roofs are usually of the multiple ridge and valley type or north light type and cover very large areas without internal support. Structures of this type can span distance up to 300 ft in the direction parallel to the ridges and almost unlimited lengths in the other direction. Folded grids can also be applied to the hipped roof form. Longitudinal members are required at the folds to give rigidity to the structure, particularly on wide spans. Although over small spans they might be omitted, rigidity would not be great and, in any case, some members would be required to support the roof covering and its substructures. Edge beams are required at all boundaries. Folded grids are usually constructed in steel using ordinary rolled steel sections for the diagonal members and channels for edge beams.

FOLDED LATICE PLATES

In principle, this is the same as folded slab construction in RCC or timber, but the planes or plates are constructed as lattice beams, usually of steel, although occasionally of timber. The adjacent edges are interconnected at the folds, usually at intervals at the node points. The roof profiles to which it can be applied and all other considerations are the same as for folded slabs. Folded lattice plate structures in steel can span greater distances than folded slabs in RCC on account of their lighter weight.

BRACED BARREL VAULT

Although similar in form to RCC shells, braced barrel vaults, being an assembly of bars, are nonhomogenous. The members can be arranged to follow directly the line of maximum stresses. In practice, several types of bracing are used each of which results in a different type of structural behaviour. The shape of the barrel is of great importance in relation to the stress distribution and although the cylindrical form is not the best shape, it very useful from the practical point of view since prefabrication is facilitated by the fact that the slope of all members is the same, the length of the bars can be the same and identical connectors can be used at all joints. The rise of the barrel should be between one eighth and one-twelfth of the span. The figure relates to multi-barrel structures and the lower figure is suitable for continuous spans or barrels which cantilever considerably at the ends. The radius of barrel should not exceed 36ft since bulking tends to occur in the shell with larger radii. The greatest practicable span for single layer

vaults appears to be about 120ft. End frames of some form must be provided at the ends of the vaults. In place of end frames hipped ends can be used on traced barrel vaults and these increase the strength of the barrel considerably. When a single braced barrel vault is supported continuously along its longitudinal edges on foundation blocks, or the ratio of L/R becomes very small, that is, <0.25 (Figure 24.12c), the forces are carried directly in the transverse direction to the edge supports. Its behavior may be visualized as the response of parallel arches. Displacement in the radial direction is resisted by circumferential bending stiffness. This type of barrel vault can be applied to buildings like airplane hangars or gymnasia where the wall and roof are combined together. There are several possible types of bracing that have been used in the construction of single-layer braced barrel vaults. Figure 24.13 shows five principle types: 1. Orthogonal grid with single bracing of Warren truss (a). 2. Orthogonal grid with single bracing of Pratt truss (b). 3. Orthogonal grid with double bracing (c). 4. Lamella (d). 5. Three way (e). The first three types of braced barrel vaults can be formed by composing latticed trusses with difference in the arrangement of bracings (Figure 24.13ac). In fact, the original barrel vault was introduced by Foppl. It consists of several latticed trusses, spanning the length of the barrel and supported on the gables. After connection of the longitudinal booms of the latticed trusses, they became a part of the braced barrel vault of the single-layer type. The popular diamond-patterned lamella type of braced barrel vault consists of a number of interconnected modular units forming a rhombus-shaped grid pattern (Figure 24.13d). Each unit, which is twice the length of the side of a diamond, is called a lamella. Lamella roofs proved ideal for prefabricated constructions as all the units are of standard size. They were originally constructed of timber, but with the increase of span, steel soon became the most frequently used material. To increase the stability of the structure and to reduce the deflections under unsymmetrical loads, purlins were employed for large-span lamella barrel vaults. This created the three-way grid type of bracing and became very popular (Figure 24.13e). The three-way grid enables the construction of such a system using equilateral triangles composed of modular units, which are of identical length and can be connected with simple nodes.

BRACED DOMES
Domes are one of the oldest and well-established structural forms and have been used in architecture since the earliest times. They are of special interest to engineers as they enclose a maximum amount of space with a minimum surface and have proved to be very economical in terms of consumption of constructional materials. The stresses in a dome are generally membrane and compressive in the major part of the shell except circumferential tensile stresses near the edge and small bending moments at the junction of the shell and the ring beam. Most domes are surfaces of revolution. The curves used to form the synclastic shell are spherical, parabolic, or elliptical, covering circular or polygonal areas. Out of a large variety of possible types of braced domes, only four or five types proved to be frequently used in practice. They are shown in Figure 24.14 1. Ribbed domes (a) 2. Schwedler domes (b) 3. Three-way grid domes (c) 4. Lamella domes (d and e) 5. Geodesic domes (f) Ribbed dome is the earliest type of braced dome that has been constructed (Figure 24.14a). A ribbed dome consists of a number of identical meridional solid girders or trusses, interconnected at the crown by a compression ring. The ribs are also connected by concentric rings to form grids in trapezium shape. The ribbed dome is usually stiffened by a steel or reinforced concrete tension ring at its base.

Schwedler dome also consists of meridional ribs connected together to a number of horizontal polygonal rings to stiffen the resulting structure so that it will be able to take unsymmetrical loads (Figure 24.14b). Each trapezium formed by intersecting meridional ribs with horizontal rings is subdivided into two triangles by a diagonal member. Sometimes the trapezium may also be subdivided by two cross-diagonal members. This type of dome was introduced by a German engineer J.W. Schwedler in 1863. The great popularity of Schwedler domes is due to the fact that, on the assumption of pin connected joints, the structure can be analyzed as statically determinate. The construction of three-way grid dome is self-explanatory, which may be imagined as a curved form of three-way double-layer grids (Figure 24.14c). It can also be constructed in single layer for the dome. The Japanese diamond dome system by Tomoegumi Iron Works belongs to this category. The theoretical analysis of three-way grid domes shows that even under unsymmetrical loading the forces in this configuration are very evenly distributed leading to economy in material consumption. A lamella dome is formed by intersecting two-way ribs diagonally to form a rhombus-shaped grid pattern. As in lamella braced barrel vault, each lamella element has a length that is twice the length of the side of a diamond. The lamella dome can further be distinguished into parallel and curved domes. For parallel lamella as shown in Figure 24.14d, the circular plan is divided into several sectors (usually six or eight), and each sector is subdivided by parallel ribs into rhombus grids of the same size. This type of lamella dome is very popular in the United States. It is sometimes called a Kiewitt dome, after its developer. For curved lamella as shown in Figure 24.14e, rhombus grids of different sizes, gradually increasing from the

center of the dome, are formed by diagonal ribs along the radial lines. Sometimes, for the purpose of establishing purlins for roof decks, concentric rings are introduced, and a triangular network is generated. The geodesic dome was developed by the American designer Buckminster Fuller, who turned architects attention to the advantages of braced domes in which the elements forming the framework of the structure are lying on the great circle of a sphere. This is where the name geodesic came from (Figure 24.14f). The framework of these intersecting elements forms a three-way grid comprising virtually equilateral spherical triangles. In Fullers original geodesic domes, he used icosahedrons as the basis for the geodesic subdivision of a sphere; then, the spherical surface is divided into 20 equilateral triangles as shown in Figure 24.15a. This is the maximum number of equilateral triangles into which a sphere can be divided. For domes of larger span, each of these triangles can be subdivided into six triangles by drawing medians and bisecting the sides of each triangle. It is therefore possible to form 15 complete great circles regularly arranged on the surface of a sphere (see Figure 24.15b). Practice shows that the primary type of bracing, which is truly geodesic, is not sufficient since it would lead to an excessive length for members in geodesic dome; therefore a secondary bracing has to be introduced. To obtain a more or less regular network of the bracing bars, the edges of the basic triangle are divided modularly. The number of modules into which each edge of the spherical icosahedron is divided depends mainly on the size of the dome, its span, and the type of roof cladding. This subdivision is usually referred to as frequency, as depicted in Figure 24.15c. It must be pointed out that during such a subdivision the resulting triangles are no longer equilateral. The members forming the skeleton of the dome show slight variation in their length. As the frequency of the subdivision increases, the member length reduces the number of components as well as the number of types of connecting joints increase. Consequently, this reflects in the increase of the final price of geodesic dome and is one of the reasons why geodesic domes, in spite of their undoubted advantages for smaller spans, do not compare equally well with other types of braced domes for larger span. The rise of a braced dome can be as flat as one seventh of the diameter or as high as three fourths of the diameter, which will constitute the greater part of a sphere. For diameters larger than 60 m, double-layer grids are recommended. The ratio of the thickness to the diameter of double-layer braced dome is in double-layer grids are recommended. The ratio of the thickness to the diameter of double-layer braced dome is in the range of 1/30th to 1/60th ,for long spans the thickness can be as small as 1/100th of the diameter. The subdivision of the surface of the braced dome can also be carried out using the following three methods. The first method is based on the surface of revolution, and the first sets of lines of division are drawn as the meridional lines from the apex. Next, circumferential rings are added. This results in a ribbed dome and further a Schwedler dome. Alternately, the initial set may be taken as a series of spiral arcs, resulting in dividing the surface into triangular units as uniform as possible. This is achieved by

drawing great circles in three directions as shown in the case of grid dome. A noteworthy type of division of a braced dome is the parallel lamella dome, which is obtained by combining the first and second methods described above. The third type of subdivision results from projecting the edges of in-polyhedral onto the spherical surface and then inscribing a triangular network of random frequency into this basic grid. Geodesic dome represents an application of this method, with the basic field derived from the icosahedrons further subdivided into equilateral triangles.

CONNECTORS OR JOINTING SYSTEM

The jointing system is an extremely important part of a space frame design. An effective solution of this problem may be said to be fundamental to successful design and construction. The type of jointing depends primarily on the connecting technique, whether it is bolting, welding, or applying special mechanical connectors. It is also affected by the shape of the members. This usually involves a different connecting technique depending on whether the members are circular or square hollow sections or rolled steel sections. The effort expended on research and development of jointing systems has been enormous, and many different types of connectors have been proposed in the past decades

Types of Joint
y Connector Plates Hollow Balls Solid Balls Extruded Hubs Welded MultiPlanar Gusset Plates Mulithinge

y Connector Plates Unistrut system

Its joint consists of a connector plate that is press-formed from steel plate. The members are channel-shaped, coldsections and are fastened to the connector plate by using a single bolt at each end. The connectors for the top and bottom-layers are identical, and therefore the Unistrut double-layer grids consist only of four components, that is, the connector plate, the strut, the bolt, and the nut

Hollow balls
Nodus system The chord connections are made of forged steel, have machined teeth, and are full-strength welded to the member ends. The teeth and grooves have an irregular pitch to ensure proper engagement. The forked connectors are made of cast steel and are welded to the diagonal members. In the completed joint, the centroidal axes of the diagonals intersect at a point that generally does not coincide with the corresponding intersecting points of the chord members. This eccentricity produces some amount of local bending in the chord members and the joint components.

y Solid Balls
Mero system Its joint consists of a node that is spherical hot-pressed steel forging with flat facets and tapped holes. Members are circular hollow sections with cone-shaped steel forgings welded at the ends, which accommodate connecting bolts. Bolts are tightened by means of a hexagonal sleeve and dowel pin arrangement, resulting in a completed joint such as that shown in Figure 24.29. Up to 18 members can be connected at a joint with no eccentricity. The manufacturer can produce nodes of different sizes with diameters ranging from 46.5 to350 mm.

y Extruded Hubs
Tridetic joints The joint for the Triodetic System, developed in Canada, consists of an extruded aluminum connector Hub with serrated keyways. Each member end is pressed to form a coined edge that fits into the hub Keyway. The joint is completed when the members are inserted into the hub, washers are placed at each End of the hub and a screw bolt is passed through the center of the hub, as shown in Figure 24.36. The triodetic connector can be used for any type of three-dimensional space frame. Originally, Only aluminum structures were built in this system, but now, space frames are erected using galvanized Steel tubes and aluminum hubs. Triodetic double-layer grids have been used up to 33-m clear span. The basic module can be almost any size up to approximately 2.7 m2. The depth is usually 70% of the Module size.