Unit-I Introduction to Computer:

Historical Evolution of Computers

History of Computers
The first counting device was used by the primitive people. They used sticks,
stones and bones as counting tools. As the human mind and technology
improved with time more computing devices were developed. Some of the
popular computing devices starting with the first to recent ones are
described below;

Abacus
The history of computers begins with the birth of abacus which is believed to be the
first computer. It is said that the Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000 years ago.

It was a wooden rack which had metal rods with beads mounted on them. The beads
were moved by the abacus operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic
calculations. Abacus is still used in some countries like China, Russia and Japan. An
image of this tool is shown below;

Napier's Bones
It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Napier
(1550-1617) of Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory strips or
bones marked with numbers to multiply and divide. So, the tool became known as
"Napier's Bones. It was also the first machine to use the decimal point.
Pascaline
Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It was invented
between 1642 and 1644 by a French mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is
believed that it was the first mechanical and automatic calculator.

Pascal invented this machine to help his father, a tax accountant. It could only
perform addition and subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of gears and
wheels. When a wheel is rotated one revolution, it rotates the neighboring wheel. A
series of windows is given on the top of the wheels to read the totals. An image of
this tool is shown below;
Stepped Reckoner or Leibniz wheel
It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibnitz in 1673. He improved Pascal's invention to develop this machine. It
was a digital mechanical calculator which was called the stepped reckoner as
instead of gears it was made of fluted drums. See the following image;

Difference Engine
In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as
"Father of Modern Computer". It was a mechanical computer which
could perform simple calculations. It was a steam driven calculating
machine designed to solve tables of numbers like logarithm tables.
Analytical Engine

This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It

was a mechanical computer that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of
solving any mathematical problem and storing information as a permanent
memory.

Tabulating Machine
It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It was a
mechanical tabulator based on punch cards. It could tabulate statistics and
record or sort data or information. This machine was used in the 1890 U.S.
Census. Hollerith also started the Hollerith?s Tabulating Machine Company
which later became International Business Machine (IBM) in 1924.

Differential Analyzer
It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in
1930. It was an analog device invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine
has vacuum tubes to switch electrical signals to perform calculations. It
could do 25 calculations in a few minutes.
Mark I
The next major changes in the history of computers began in 1937
when Howard Aiken planned to develop a machine that could
perform calculations involving large numbers. In 1944, Mark I
computer was built as a partnership between IBM and Harvard. It
was the first programmable digital computer.
 Generations of Computers
A generation of computers refers to the specific improvements in computer technology with
time. In 1946, electronic pathways called circuits were developed to perform the counting. It
replaced the gears and other mechanical parts used for counting in previous computing
machines.

In each new generation, the circuits became smaller and more advanced than the previous
generation circuits. The miniaturization helped increase the speed, memory and power of
computers. There are five generations of computers which are described below;

First Generation Computers

The first generation (1946-1955) computers were slow, huge and expensive. In these computers, vacuum tubes were
used as the basic components of CPU and memory. These computers mainly depended on a batch operating system
and punch cards. Magnetic tape and paper tape were used as output and input devices in this generation;

Some of the popular first generation computers are;

○ ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)

○ EDVAC ( Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
○ UNIVAC( Universal Automatic Computer)
○ IBM-701
○ IBM-650

Second Generation Computers

The second generation (1955-196) was the era of the transistor computers. These computers
used transistors which were cheap, compact and consuming less power; it made transistor
computers faster than the first generation computers.

In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic disc and
tapes were used as the secondary storage. Assembly language and programming languages
like COBOL and FORTRAN, and Batch processing and multiprogramming operating systems
were used in these computers.
Some of the popular second generation computers are;

○ IBM 1620
○ IBM 7094
○ CDC 1604
○ CDC 3600
○ UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation Computers

The third generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of transistors. A single
IC can pack a huge number of transistors which increases the power of a computer and
reduces the cost. The computers also became more reliable, efficient and smaller in size.
These generation computers used remote processing, time-sharing, multi
multi-programming as operating systems. Also, the high-level programming languages like
FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, ALGOL-68 were used in this generation.

Some of the popular third generation computers are;

○ IBM-360 series
○ Honeywell-6000 series
○ PDP(Personal Data Processor)
○ IBM-370/168
○ TDC-316

Fourth Generation Computers

The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits; a
chip containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements. These chips made this
generation of computers more compact, powerful, fast and affordable. These generation
computers used real time, time sharing and distributed operating systems. The
programming languages like C, C++, DBASE were also used in this generation.
Some of the popular fourth generation computers are;

○ DEC 10
○ STAR 1000
○ PDP 11
○ CRAY-1(Supercomputer)
○ CRAY-X-MP(Supercomputer)

Fifth Generation Computers

In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI technology was replaced with ULSI
(Ultra Large Scale Integration). It made possible the production of microprocessor chips with
ten million electronic components. This generation of computers used parallel processing
hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. The programming languages used in this
generation were C, C++, Java, .Net, etc.

Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;

○ Desktop
○ Laptop
○ NoteBook
○ UltraBook
○ ChromeBook
Characteristics of Computer System

Let’s go over the characteristics of computers.

1. Speed

Executing mathematical calculation, a computer works faster and more accurately than
a human. Computers have the ability to process so many millions (1,000,000) of
instructions per second. Computer operations are performed in micro and nano
seconds. A computer is a time saving device. It performs several calculations and tasks
in a few seconds that take hours to solve. The speed of a computer is measured in
terms of GigaHertz and MegaHertz.

2. Diligence

A human cannot work for several hours without resting, yet a computer never tires. A
computer can conduct millions of calculations per second with complete precision
without stopping. A computer can consistently and accurately do millions of jobs or
calculations. There is no weariness or lack of concentration. Its memory ability also
places it ahead of humans.

3. Reliability

A computer is reliable. The output results never differ unless the input varies. The
output totally depends on the input. when an input is the same the output will also be
the same. A computer produces consistent results for similar sets of data, if we provide
the same set of input at any time we will get the same result.

4. Automation

The world is quickly moving toward AI (Artificial Intelligence)-based technology. A

computer may conduct tasks automatically after instructions are programmed. By
executing jobs automatically, this computer feature replaces thousands of workers.
Automation in computing is often achieved by the use of a program, a script, or batch
processing.
5. Versatility

Versatility refers to a capacity of a computer. Computers perform different types of

tasks with the same accuracy and efficiency. A computer can perform multiple tasks at
the same time this is known as versatility. For example, while listening to music, we
may develop our project using PowerPoint and Wordpad, or we can design a website.

6. Memory

A computer can store millions of records. These records may be accessed with
complete precision. Computer memory storage capacity is measured in Bytes,
Kilobytes(KB), Megabytes(MB), Gigabytes(GB), and Terabytes(TB). A computer has
built-in memory known as primary memory.

7. Accuracy

When a computer performs a computation or operation, the chances of errors occurring

are low. Errors in a computer are caused by humans submitting incorrect data. A
computer can do a variety of operations and calculations fast and accurately.
Types of Computer
We can categorize computers in two ways: on the basis of data handling
capabilities and size.

On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:

○ Analogue Computer
○ Digital Computer
○ Hybrid Computer

1) Analogue Computer
Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data
is continuous data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete
values. We can say that analogue computers are used where we don't always
need exact values such as speed, temperature, pressure and current.

Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device
without first converting it into numbers and codes. They measure the
continuous changes in physical quantity and generally render output as a
reading on a dial or scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are
examples of analogue computers.

Advantages of using analogue computers:

○ It allows real-time operations and computation at the same time and

continuous representation of all data within the rage of the analogue
machine.
○ In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking
the help of transducers for converting the inputs or outputs to digital
electronic form and vice versa.
○ The programmer can scale the problem for the dynamic range of the
analogue computer. It provides insight into the problem and helps
understand the errors and their effects.

Types of analogue computers:

 ○ Slide Rules: It is one of the simplest types of mechanical analogue
computers. It was developed to perform basic mathematical
calculations. It is made of two rods. To perform the calculation, the
hashed rod is slid to line up with the markings on another rod.
○ Differential Analysers: It was developed to perform differential
calculations. It performs integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms
to solve differential calculations.
○ Castle Clock: It was invented by Al-Jarazi. It was able to save
programming instructions. Its height was around 11 feet and it was
provided with the display of time, the zodiac, and the solar and lunar
orbits. This device also could allow users to set the length of the day as
per the current season.
○ Electronic Analogue Computer: In this type of analogue computer,
electrical signals flow through capacitors and resistors to simulate
physical phenomena. Here, the mechanical interaction of components
does not take place. The voltage of the electrical signal generates the
appropriate displays.

2) Digital Computer
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at
high speed. It accepts the raw data as input in the form of digits or binary
numbers (0 and 1) and processes it with programs stored in its memory to
produce the output. All modern computers like laptops, desktops including
smartphones that we use at home or office are digital computers.

Advantages of digital computers:

○ It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it

easily whenever you need it.
○ You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.
○ Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing
the program without making any changes in hardware
○ The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC
technology.
○ It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.
○ It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.
○ Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise,
temperature, humidity, and other properties of its components.
3) Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computers have features of both analogue and digital computers. It is
fast like an analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital
computers. It can process both continuous and discrete data. It accepts
analogue signals and converts them into digital form before processing. So, it
is widely used in specialized applications where both analogue and digital
data is processed. For example, a processor is used in petrol pumps that
converts the measurements of fuel flow into quantity and price. Similarly, they
are used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific applications.

Advantages of using hybrid computers:

○ Its computing speed is very high due to the all-parallel configuration of

the analogue subsystem.
○ It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.
○ It has the ability to solve and manage big equations in real-time.
○ It helps in on-line data processing.

On the basis of size, the computer can be of five types:

1) Supercomputer
Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to
process huge amounts of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of
instructions in a second. It has thousands of interconnected processors.

Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering

applications such as weather forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear
energy research. The first supercomputer was developed by Roger Cray in
1976.

Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:

○ It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance

protection for security reasons.
○ It produces excellent results in animations.
○ It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical
medical tests.
 ○ It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast
weather conditions. It can run in NOAA's system (National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) that can execute
any type of simple and logical data.
○ It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the
beginner level for their training.
○ It helps in extracting useful information from data storage
centers or cloud systems. For example, in insurance
companies.
○ It has played a vital role in managing the online currency
world such as the stock market and bitcoin.
○ It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in
producing accurate results in brain injuries, strokes, etc.
○ It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analyzing
data obtained from exploring the solar system, satellites, and
movement of Earth.
○ It is also used in a smog control system where it predicts the
level of fog and other pollutants in the atmosphere.

2) Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously. They can support multiple
programs at the same time. It means they can execute different
processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers
make them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom
sectors, which need to manage and process high volumes of data.

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Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously. They can support multiple
programs at the same time. It means they can execute different
processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers
make them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom
sectors, which need to manage and process a high volume of data
that requires integer operations such as indexing, comparisons,
etc.

Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

○ It can process huge amounts of data, e.g. millions of

transactions in a second in the banking sector.
○ It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years
after proper installation.
○ It gives excellent performance with large scale memory
management.
○ It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among
other processors and input/output terminals.
○ There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in
mainframe computers. If any error occurs it can fix it quickly
without affecting the performance.
○ It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing
exchange of information and data.

Applications of mainframe computers:

○ In health care, it enabled hospitals to maintain a record of

their millions of patients in order to contact them for
treatment or related to their appointment, medicine updates
or disease updates.
○ In the field of defense, it allows the defense departments to
share a large amount of sensitive information with other
branches of defense.
 ○ In the field of education, it helps big universities to store,
manage and retrieve data related to their courses,
admissions, students, teachers, employees and affiliated
schools and colleges.
○ In the retail sector, the retail companies that have a huge
customer base and branches use mainframe computers to
handle and execute information related to their inventory
management, customer management, and huge
transactions in a short duration.

3) Mainframe or Minicomputer
It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more
processors and can support 4 to 200 users at one time. Miniframe
computers are used in institutes and departments for tasks such
as billing, accounting and inventory management. A
minicomputer lies between the mainframe and microcomputer
as it is smaller than the mainframe but larger than a
microcomputer.

Characteristics of mainframe or minicomputer:

○ It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.

○ It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
○ It is very fast compared to its size.
○ It remains charged for a long time.
○ It does not require a controlled operational environment.

Applications of minicomputers:
A minicomputer is mainly used to perform three primary
functions, which are as follows:

○ Process control: It was used for process control in

manufacturing. It mainly performs two primary functions
 that are collecting data and feedback. If any abnormality
occurs in the process, it is detected by the minicomputer and
necessary adjustments are made accordingly.
○ Data management: It is an excellent device for small
organizations to collect, store and share data. Local hospitals
and hotels can use it to maintain the records of their patients
and customers respectively.
○ Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a
communication device in larger systems by serving as a
portal between a human operator and a central processor or
computer.

4) Workstation
Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for
technical or scientific applications. It has a faster microprocessor, a
large amount of RAM and high speed graphic adapters. It
generally performs a specific job with great expertise; accordingly,
they are of different types such as graphics workstation, music
workstation and engineering design workstation.

Characteristics of workstation computer:

○ It is a high-performance computer system designed for a

single user for business or professional use.
○ It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more
powerful CPU than a personal computer.
○ It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video
creation and editing.

Any computer that has the following five features, can be termed
as a workstation or can be used as a workstation.

○ Multiple Processor Cores: It has more processor cores than

simple laptops or computers.
 ○ ECC RAM: It is provided with Error-correcting code memory
that can fix memory errors before they affect the system's
performance.
○ RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): It refers to
multiple internal hard drives to store or process data. RAID
can be of different types, for example, there can be multiple
drives to process data or mirrored drives where if one drive
does not work than other starts functioning.
○ SSD: It is better than conventional hard-disk drives. It does
not have moving parts, so the chances of physical failure are
very less.
○ Optimized, Higher end GPU: It reduces the load on CPU. E.g.,
CPU has to do less work while processing the screen output.

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5) Microcomputer
Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a
general-purpose computer that is designed for individual use. It
has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory,
storage area, input unit and output unit. Laptops and desktop
computers are examples of microcomputers. They are suitable for
personal work that may be making an assignment, watching a
movie, or at office for office work.

Characteristics of a microcomputer:

○ It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.

○ A limited number of software can be used.
○ It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one
user can work at a time.
○ It is less expansive and easy to use.
 ○ It does not require the user to have special skills or training to
use it.
○ Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.
○ It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning,
browsing, watching videos, etc.

Basic Applications of Computers

Computers are used in every field of life, such as homes, businesses,
educational institutions, research organizations, the medical field,
government offices, entertainment, etc. Today we can not imagine growing
our technology without computers. The various field where the computer is
very essential are:

Science

Today the computer is the primary work tool in the field of science. It is the
best-suited machine for collecting, analyzing, classifying, and storing data. It
becomes the most essential medium to spread knowledge internally and
internationally. It allows scientists from different locations to work together
and share ideas on the same project.

Defence System

A computer performs a vital task to control defense system. Computers are

used to track airplanes, missiles, tanks, and different kinds of weapons. Once
the radar system tracks a missile and artificial intelligence is programmed to
target a missile and destroy it before it comes on the surface. It also used for
GPS tracking, controlling defense vehicles, records of all members of the
military.

Medical
The computer plays a very important role in medical science such as
recording patients’ information, monitoring heart rate, oxygen level, and
blood pressure. To conduct various surgeries junior doctors get the help of
another professional doctor by web conferencing. Research is also spread
with the help of computers in the health sector.

Education

Today learning becomes easy because of computers. Anyone employed or

student can learn any stage of life with the help of a computer. Computers
are very crucial for online classes, download study material on the internet.
Computers are also used to track student attendance and learning strategies.
Coaching and institutes increased their areas by audio-visual aids using
computers.

Banking

A computer performs a crucial role in banking sectors, by storing several

account holder details on a bank server. All transactions such as deposits and
withdrawals are performed by a computer. A banking company can easily
monitor all ATMs and passbook printing machines.

Government Sectors

Government can easily monitor government sectors such as road services,

railway, development, and other rising funds. The information of every citizen
is stored on the server through the computer.

Entertainment
Today most people are so busy and they do not easily get time to fresh their
minds. We can play various interesting video games using a computer. We
can watch movies, TV shows, and reality shows on the computer. A computer
is also used to create sarcastic memes and make us happy.

Computer Parts or Components

Computer components are the essential building parts of
developing a functional computer system. The components that
make up a computer are called computer components. The
processor (CPU), memory, and input/output devices are every
computer's three main building blocks. Initially computers were
primarily used for numerical computations because any
information can be numerically encoded. The ability of computers
to interpret information for several purposes was quickly
recognized.

There are 5 main computer components that are given below:

○ Input Devices
○ CPU
○ Output Devices
○ Primary Memory
○ Secondary Memory
Let's look a bit further at each of them.

Input devices
A computer system's input devices are important because they
allow users to enter commands and data. Keyboards, mice,
scanners, and microphones are numerous examples of input
devices.
 ○ The keyboard is the most commonly utilized input device for
inserting text and queries into a computer system.
○ Mice are another common input tool used to move the
cursor on a computer screen.
○ Scanners are used for inputting physical documents or
images into a computer system.
○ Microphones are used to input audio data into a system for
computing. They can be used for various tasks, including
recording audio for podcasts, participating in video
conferences, and creating voice memos for later use.

CPU
A computer machine's "brain" is its central processing unit (CPU). It
executes the calculations and commands required for functioning
of the computer device. The CPU comprises some components:
the control unit, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and registers.
○ The CPU's control unit is a crucial component. It is in charge
of reading and decoding instructions from memory. The right
part of the CPU receives and executes these instructions from
the control unit.
○ The ALU, often known as the arithmetic logic unit, is another
crucial CPU part. The ALU operates addition, subtraction,
comparison calculations, and other logical and mathematical
processes. These operations are carried out using binary
logic, which limits operations to the 0 and 1 digits.
○ Registers are compact, high-speed data and instruction
storage spaces within the CPU. They are utilized to store data
that is being processed by the CPU momentarily. Registers
 are used to accelerate data processing because they are
much faster than other forms of memory, such as RAM.
○ The CPU's clock speed is yet another crucial aspect that
affects overall performance. The clock speed, measured in
GHz (gigahertz), controls what number of commands the
integral processing unit can process in a second.

Modern CPUs also have additional features like cache memory,

virtualization capability, and a couple of cores in addition to the
above mentioned components. A small, quick memory called a
cache is used to store data and instructions that are utilized
frequently. A single CPU may run numerous operating systems
thanks to virtualization capability. The CPU can execute numerous
tasks simultaneously thanks to multiple cores, enhancing its
performance and multitasking capabilities.

Primary Memory
The CPU has direct access to primary memory, sometimes
referred to as random access memory (RAM). The data and
instructions that are currently being processed are kept in primary
memory. The data and instructions are accessed by the CPU from
primary memory when a computer programme is running. The
information is removed from primary memory once the
programme is completed.
Primary memory is classified into two types: random access
memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM).

○ RAM is the most common form of primary memory and is

used to store data and instructions that the CPU wishes to
access frequently. RAM is volatile, which means that its
contents are lost when the computer is turned off. But RAM
can be effortlessly and quickly written to and read from,
making it a really perfect storage medium for temporary data
and instructions.
○ ROM is a form of memory that is used to store data and
instructions that don't change. ROM is non-volatile, which
means that its contents aren't lost while the computer is
turned off. ROM is used to keep firmware and the laptop's
basic input/Output machine (BIOS), that are required for the
computer to boot up and function well.

Other primary memory types, including cache memory, are

sometimes used in computer systems. High-speed memory called
cache saves information and instructions, which might be utilized
often. By lowering the time, the CPU has to wait for data to be
received from RAM or secondary storage devices, it is used to
speed up the processing of records.

Secondary Memory:
Secondary memory, also called auxiliary storage, is a type of
computer memory that is used to store data and programs that
aren't currently being utilized by the CPU. In contrast to primary
memory, secondary memory is non-volatile, which means that its
contents are not lost when the computer is turned off.

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There are several types of secondary memory devices, such as hard
disk drives (HDD), solid-state drives (SSD), optical disks (including
CDs and DVDs), and USB flash drives. These devices have varying
storage capacities, read and write speeds, and different capabilities
that make them appropriate for different types of applications.
 ○ Hard disc drives are the most typical secondary memory tool
in computing devices and laptop computers. They come in
various sizes and speeds and keep data on magnetic discs.
However, solid-state drives employ flash memory to store
data and are typically quicker and more reliable despite
being extra high-priced than HDDs.
○ Optical discs are a secondary memory that reads and writes
data to discs using lasers. They are frequently used for data
backup, distribution of software, and other digital
information. Small, portable storage devices known as USB
flash drives are connected to a computer's USB connection.

Users can store a lot of data and programmes in secondary

memory, which is useful since it makes them accessible fast and
readily when needed. Users can also protect crucial data from loss
due to system crashes or other issues by using secondary memory
devices as backups.

Output Devices:
Output devices are hardware components of a computer system
that are used to show or send data from the pc to the user or any
other device. They enable customers to view and engage with the
information and applications the computer is processing.
Speakers, projectors, printers, and monitors are a few examples of
output devices.
 ○ Monitors are the most frequently used output devices used
to show data on a computer machine. They may be used to
show photos, videos, and different forms of data and exist in
various sizes and resolutions.
○ Printers are another form of output device that is used to
print hard copies of papers and other styles of data. They
include inkjet and laser printers and are available in various
sizes and brands. While laser printers utilize toner to make
speedy, high-volume prints, inkjet printers employ liquid ink
to produce high-quality prints.
○ Speakers are used to output sound from a computer system.
They can be connected externally or incorporated into the
computer system. They enable users to interact with other
forms of multimedia material, view videos, and listen to
music.
○ Projectors are output device that displays huge images and
videos on a screen or wall. They are frequently utilized in
presentations and other occasions that call for a sizable
display.

Operations of Computer Components

The operations of computer components are given below:

Computer components collaborate to carry out the numerous

tasks necessary for a computer system to run. The following are
some of the major operations carried out by computer
components:

1. Inputting: It is the process of entering raw data, instructions

and information into the computer. Keyboards, mice, and
scanners are used as input devices to help with the process.
These tools are used to enter information and instructions
into a computer system. Data is transferred to the CPU for
processing after inputting by an input device.
2. Processing: It is the process of converting the raw data into
useful information. This process is performed by the CPU of
the computer. It takes the raw data from storage, processes it
and then sends back the processed data to storage. The CPU
performs arithmetic computations, logical operations, and
data transport processes.
3. Storing: The computer has primary memory and secondary
storage to store data and instructions. It stores the data
before sending it to the CPU for processing and also stores
the processed data before displaying it as output. The
primary memory, sometimes called RAM, is where the CPU
processes the data and instructions. Hard disc drives and
solid-state drives, which serve as secondary memory, offer
long-term storage for data and programmes that are not
currently used.
4. Outputting: It is the process of presenting the processed data
through output devices like monitor, printer and speakers.
These devices display or produce the results of the
processing performed by the CPU. The results are sent to an
 output device for display or printing after the CPU has
finished processing the data and instructions.
5. Controlling: This operation is performed by the control unit
that is part of the CPU. The control unit ensures that all basic
operations are executed in the right manner and sequence.
The main circuit board connects all the parts of the
computer. It also regulates the data flow between them,
ensuring they function properly and connecting them all.

Input Devices
Input devices enable the user to send data, information, or control
signals to a computer. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a
computer receives the input and processes it to produce the
output.

Some of the popular input devices are:

1. Keyboard

The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter data

into a computer or any other electronic device by pressing
keys. It has different sets of keys for letters, numbers,
characters, and functions. Keyboards are connected to a
computer through USB or a Bluetooth device for wireless
communication.

Types of keyboards: There can be different types of keyboards

based on the region and language used. Some of the
common types of keyboards are as follows:

QWERTY Keyboard:
It is the most commonly used keyboard with computers in
modern times. It is named after the first six letters of the top row of
buttons and is even popular in countries that do not use
Latin-based alphabet. It is so popular that some people think that
it is the only type of keyboard to use with computers as an input
device.

2) Mouse
The mouse is a hand-held input device which is used to move
cursor or pointer across the screen. It is designed to be used on a
flat surface and generally has left and right buttons and a scroll
wheel between them. Laptop computers come with a touchpad
that works as a mouse. It lets you control the movement of cursor
or pointer by moving your finger over the touchpad. Some mouse
come with integrated features such as extra buttons to perform
different buttons.

The mouse was invented by Douglas C. Engelbart in 1963. Early

mouse had a rollerball integrated as a movement sensor
underneath the device. Modern mouse devices come with optical
technology that controls cursor movements by a visible or invisible
light beam. A mouse is connected to a computer through different
ports depending on the type of computer and type of a mouse.

Common types of the mouse:

i) Trackball Mouse:
It is a stationary input device that has a ball mechanism to move
the pointer or cursor on the screen. The ball is half inserted in the
device and can be easily rolled with finger, thumb or the palm to
move the pointer on the screen. The device has a sensor to detect
the rotation of the ball. It remains stationary; you don't need to
move it on the operating surface. So, it is an ideal device if you
have limited desk space as you don't need to move it like a mouse.

ii) Mechanical Mouse:

It has a system of a ball and several rollers to track its movement. It

is a corded type of mouse. A mechanical mouse can be used for
high performance. The drawback is that they tend to get dust into
the mechanics and thus require regular cleaning.

iii) Optical Mouse:

An optical mouse uses optical electronics to track its movement. It

is more reliable than a mechanical mouse and also requires less
maintenance. However, its performance is affected by the surface
on which it is operated. Plain non-glossy mouse mat should be
used for best results. The rough surface may cause problems for
the optical recognition system, and the glossy surface may reflect
the light wrongly and thus may cause tracking issues.

iv) Cordless or Wireless Mouse:

As the name suggests, this type of mouse lacks cable and uses
wireless technology such as IrDA (infrared) or radio (Bluetooth or
Wi-Fi) to control the movement of the cursor. It is used to improve
the experience of using a mouse. It uses batteries for its power
supply.

Scanner

The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans
the picture or a document. The scanned picture or document is
then converted into a digital format or file and is displayed on the
screen as an output. It uses optical character recognition
techniques to convert images into digital ones. Some of the
common types of scanners are as follows:

Types of Scanner:

i) Flatbed Scanner:
It has a glass pane and a moving optical CIS or CCD array. The light
illuminates the pane, and then the image is placed on the glass
pane. The light moves across the glass pane and scans the
document and thus produces its digital copy. You will need a
transparency adapter while scanning transparent slides.

ii) Handheld Scanner:

It is a small manual scanning device which is held by hand and is

rolled over a flat image that is to be scanned. The drawback in
using this device is that the hand should be steady while scanning;
otherwise, it may distort the image. One of the commonly used
handheld scanners is the barcode scanner which you would have
seen in shopping stores.

iii) Sheetfed Scanner:

In this scanner, the document is inserted into the slot provided in
the scanner. The main components of this scanner include the
sheet-feeder, scanning module, and calibration sheet. The light
does not move in this scanner. Instead, the document moves
through the scanner. It is suitable for scanning single page
documents, not for thick objects like books, magazines, etc.

iv) Drum Scanner:

Drum scanner has a photomultiplier tube (PMT) to scan images. It
does not have a charge-coupled device like a flatbed scanner. The
photomultiplier tube is extremely sensitive to light. The image is
placed on a glass tube, and the light moves across the image,
which produces a reflection of the image which is captured by the
PMT and processed. These scanners have high resolution and are
suitable for detailed scans.

v) Photo Scanner:
It is designed to scan photographs. It has high resolution and color
depth, which are required for scanning photographs. Some photo
scanners come with in-built software for cleaning and restoring
old photographs.

Joystick

A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is made up

of a stick with a spherical base. The base is fitted in a socket that
allows free movement of the stick. The movement of the stick
controls the cursor or pointer on the screen.

The first joystick was invented by C. B. Mirick at the U.S. Naval

Research Laboratory. A joystick can be of different types such as
displacement joysticks, finger-operated joysticks, hand operated,
isometric joysticks, and more. In a joystick, the cursor keeps
moving in the direction of the joystick unless it is upright, whereas,
in a mouse, the cursor moves only when the mouse moves.

Light Pen
Light Pen

A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen. The tip
of the light pen contains a light-sensitive detector that enables the
user to point to or select objects on the display screen. Its light
sensitive tip detects the object location and sends the
corresponding signals to the CPU. It is not compatible with LCD
screens, so it is not in use today. It also helps you draw on the
screen if needed. The first light pen was invented around 1955 as a
part of the Whirlwind project at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT).

Digitizer
Digitizer is a computer input device that has a flat surface and
usually comes with a stylus. It enables the user to draw images
and graphics using the stylus as we draw on paper with a pencil.
The images or graphics drawn on the digitizer appear on the
computer monitor or display screen. The software converts the
touch inputs into lines and can also convert handwritten text to
typewritten words.

It can be used to capture handwritten signatures and data or

images from taped papers. Furthermore, it is also used to receive
information in the form of drawings and send output to a CAD
(Computer-aided design) application and software like AutoCAD.
Thus, it allows you to convert hand-drawn images into a format
suitable for computer processing.

Microphone

Microphone

The microphone is a computer input device that is used to input

the sound. It receives the sound vibrations and converts them into
audio signals or sends them to a recording medium. The audio
signals are converted into digital data and stored in the computer.
The microphone also enables the user to telecommunicate with
others. It is also used to add sound to presentations and with
webcams for video conferencing. A microphone can capture audio
waves in different ways; accordingly the three most common types
are described below:

i) Dynamic:
It is the most commonly used microphone with a simple design. It
has a magnet which is wrapped by a metal coil and a thin sheet on
the front end of the magnet. The sheet transfers vibrations from
sound waves to the coil and from coil to electric wires which
transmit the sound like an electrical signal.

ii) Condenser:

It is designed for audio recording and has a very sensitive and flat
frequency response. It has a front plate called diaphragm and a
back plate parallel to the front plate. When sound hits the
diaphragm, it vibrates the diaphragm and alters the distance
between the two plates. The changes in distance are transmitted
as electric signals.

iii) Ribbon:

It is known for its reliability. It has a thin ribbon made of aluminum,

duralumin, or nanofilm suspended in a magnetic field. The sound
waves cause vibrations in the ribbon, which generate a voltage
proportional to the velocity of the vibration. The voltage is
transmitted as an electrical signal. Early ribbon microphones had a
transformer to increase the output voltage, but modern ribbon
microphones come with advanced magnets to produce a strong
signal.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

The MICR computer input device is designed to read the text
printed with magnetic ink. MICR is a character recognition
technology that makes use of special magnetized ink which is
sensitive to magnetic fields. It is widely used in banks to process
the cheques and other organizations where security is a major
concern. It can process three hundred cheques in a minute with
hundred-percent accuracy. The details on the bottom of the
cheque (MICR No.) are written with magnetic ink. A laser printer
with MICR toner can be used to print magnetic ink.

The device reads the details and sends them to a computer for
processing. A document printed in magnetic ink is required to
pass through a machine which magnetizes the ink, and the
magnetic information is then translated into characters.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR computer input device is designed to convert the scanned

images of handwritten, typed or printed text into digital text. It is
widely used in offices and libraries to convert documents and
books into electronic files.
It processes and copies the physical form of a document using a
scanner. After copying the documents, the OCR software converts
the documents into a two-color (black and white), version called
bitmap. Then it is analyzed for light and dark areas, where the dark
areas are selected as characters, and the light area is identified as
background. It is widely used to convert hard copy legal or historic
documents into PDFs. The converted documents can be edited if
required like we edit documents created in ms word.

Digital Camera

Digital camera:

It is a digital device as it captures images and records videos

digitally and then stores them on a memory card. It is provided
with an image sensor chip to capture images, as opposed to film
used by traditional cameras. Besides this, a camera that is
connected to your computer can also be called a digital camera.

It has photosensors to record light that enters the camera through

the lens. When the light strikes the photosensors, each of the
sensors returns the electrical current, which is used to create the
images.

Paddle
) Paddle:

It is a simple input device that is widely used in games. It is a

wheel that is held by hand and looks like a volume knob on a
stereo that is used to increase or decrease the volume. Paddle
moves or controls cursor or any other objects in the game in a
back-and-forth motion. It is widely used as an alternative to the
joystick. Besides this, the term paddle also refers to many
handheld devices designed to control a function in an electronic
device, computer, etc.

Steering Wheel

Steering wheel:
It is used as an input device in racing video games such as car
racing games or in driving programs as virtual simulators to steer a
vehicle. It works like the real steering wheel by allowing you to take
a right or left turn. A steering wheel may be provided with
acceleration and brake pedal devices and a mechanism for shifting
gears. Thus, it makes racing games more adventurous and
entertaining.

Gesture recognition devices

Gesture recognition devices:

These devices take human gestures as input. There are many such
devices that respond to gestures. For example, Kinect is one such
device that observes the movement of a player's body and
interprets these movements as inputs to video games. This feature
is also available in certain tablets and smartphones where you can
perform certain tasks such as taking pictures using finger gestures
such as swiping, pinching, etc.

Light Gun

Light Gun:
As the name suggests, it is a pointing input device that is
designed to point at and shoot the targets on the screen in a video
game, or arcade, etc. The light gun was used for the first time on
the MIT Whirlwind computer. When the gun is pointed at the
target on the screen and the trigger is pulled, the screen goes
blank for a fraction of a second. During this moment, the
photodiode, which is present in the barrel, determines where the
gun is pointed. For example, shooting ducks in a duck hunt game.

Touch Pad

Touchpad:

It is usually found in laptops as a substitute for the mouse. It allows

you to move or control the cursor on the screen using your finger.
Just like a mouse, it also has two buttons for right and left click.
Using the touchpad, you can perform all the tasks that you do with
a mouse, such as selecting an object on the screen, copy, paste,
delete, open a file or folder, and more.

Remote

Remote:

It is a hardware device designed to control the functioning of a

device, e.g., a TV remote that can be used to change channels,
increase or decrease the volume, from a distance without leaving
the seat. The first cordless TV remote was invented by Dr. Robert
Adler of Zenith in 1956. The remote sends the electromagnetic
waves to communicate with the device. These waves can be
infrared rays, radio waves, etc.

Touch screen:
It is the display screen of a device such as a smartphone, tablet,
etc., that allows users to interact or provide inputs to the device by
using their finger. Today, most electronic devices come with
touchscreen as an alternative to a mouse for navigating a
graphical user interface. For example, by touching, you can unlock
your phone, open emails, open files, play videos, etc. Besides this, it
is used in lots of devices such as Camera, Car GPS, Fitness
machine, etc.

The concept of the touch screen was first introduced and

published by E.A. Johnson in 1965. The first touch screen was
developed at the beginning of the 1970s by CERN engineers Frank
Beck and Bent Stumpe.

VR:

VR stands for virtual reality. It is an artificial or virtual environment

which is generated by computers. A person can interact with
virtual objects of this artificial environment using some input
devices such as headsets, gloves, headphones, etc. For example, he
or she can find himself or herself walking on a beach, watching a
football match, walking in the sky, etc., without actually doing all
this.

Webcam:
Any camera which is connected to a computer is called a webcam.
The in-built camera provided on a computer can also be
considered a webcam. It is an input device as it can take pictures,
and can be used to record videos if required. The pictures and
videos are stored in the computer memory and can be displayed
on the screen if required. Although it works almost the same as
the digital camera, it is different from a digital camera, as it is
designed to take compact digital photos that can be uploaded
easily on the webpages and shared with others through the
internet.

Biometric Devices

Biometrics refers to a process in which a person is identified

through his or her biological features such as fingerprints, eye
cornea, face structure, etc. It is done by using biometric devices,
which can be of different types based on their scanning features
and abilities, such as:
i) Face Scanner:
It is designed to identify a person by scanning his or her face. It
takes the face measurements of a person. For example, the
distance between eyes, nose, and mouth, etc., accordingly, it
confirms the identity of a person. Besides this, it is smart enough
to differentiate between a person's picture and the real person.

ii) Hand Scanner:

The hand of a person can also be used to verify his or her identity
as every person has a unique pattern of veins in the palm, just like
fingerprints. This device takes advantage of this feature; it
identifies a person by scanning the palm of his hand. It uses
infrared light to scan veins' patterns and blood flowing in them.
Palm is even more unique than fingerprints.

iii) Fingerprint Scanner:

It scans the fingerprints to identify people or for biometric

authentication. This device is developed, keeping in mind the fact
that no two persons in the world can have the same fingerprints. It
is widely used in companies as a fingerprint attendance system to
mark the attendance of employees. This type of scanners captures
the pattern of valleys and ridges found on a finger and store it in
the memory or database. When you press your finger on the given
space, it verifies the identity by using its pattern-matching
software.

iv) Retina or Iris Scanner:

It scans the retina or iris of a person's eye to confirm the identity.
This device is more secure than others as it is next to impossible to
copy the retina or iris. It works by mapping the retina's blood
vessel patterns of the eye. The blood vessels of retina absorb light
more easily as well as can be identified with appropriate lighting.

In this scan, a beam of low-energy infrared light falls on the retina

through the scanner's eyepiece. Then, the software captures the
network of blood vessels in the retina and uses it to verify a
person's identity.

v) Voice Scanner:

It records the voice of a person and digitizes it to create a

distinctive voice print or template. The voiceprints are stored in the
database, and are used to verify the voice of a person to confirm
his or her identity. The person is required to speak in the normal or
same voice that was used to create a voice template. It is not much
reliable as it can be misused using a tape recording.