SQL

SQL (Structured Query Language) is a standardized programming language used to manage

and manipulate relational databases. SQL allows users to create, read, update, and delete data
(often referred to as CRUD operations) within a database. It is used to interact with a database,
retrieve information, insert data, update records, and manage the structure of database objects
like tables and views.

SQL Commands: It can be categorized into several types based on their functionality:

1. Data Query Language (DQL)

These commands are used to query or retrieve data from a database.

 SELECT: Used to query data from a table.

SELECT * FROM employees;

2. Data Definition Language (DDL)

These commands are used to define, modify, and delete database objects such as tables, indexes,
and schemas.

 CREATE: Used to create database objects like tables, views, etc.

CREATE TABLE employees (

employee_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
first_name VARCHAR(50),
last_name VARCHAR(50)
);

 ALTER: Used to modify the structure of an existing database object.

ALTER TABLE employees ADD email VARCHAR(100);

 DROP: Used to delete an existing database object.

DROP TABLE employees;

 TRUNCATE: Deletes all the rows in a table but doesn't remove the table itself.

TRUNCATE TABLE employees;

3. Data Manipulation Language (DML)

These commands are used for manipulating the data stored in the database (inserting, updating,
and deleting records).

 INSERT: Used to insert new rows into a table

INSERT INTO employees (employee_id, first_name, last_name, department)

VALUES (1, 'John', 'Doe', 'HR');

 UPDATE: Used to modify existing records in a table.

UPDATE employees SET department = 'Finance' WHERE employee_id = 1;

 DELETE: Used to delete records from a table.

DELETE FROM employees WHERE employee_id = 1;

4. Data Control Language (DCL)

These commands are used to control access to data within the database.

 GRANT: Used to provide access privileges to users.

GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON employees TO user1;

 REVOKE: Used to remove access privileges from users.

REVOKE SELECT ON employees FROM user1;

5. Transaction Control Language (TCL)

These commands manage the changes made by DML commands. They are used to ensure data
integrity and control transaction behavior.

 COMMIT: Saves the changes made in the current transaction.

COMMIT;

 ROLLBACK: Rolls back (undoes) the changes made in the current transaction.

ROLLBACK;

 SAVEPOINT: Sets a point within a transaction to which you can later roll back.

SAVEPOINT savepoint1;

 SET TRANSACTION: Used to set specific properties for the transaction, like isolation
level.

SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ COMMITTED;

1. SQL Basics

a. SELECT: This statement is used to query a database and retrieve data from one or more
tables.

SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name;

 Example:

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM employees;

b. WHERE: This clause is used to filter records that meet specific conditions.

SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name WHERE condition;

  Example:

SELECT * FROM employees WHERE age > 30;

c. AND, OR, NOT: Used to combine multiple conditions.

SELECT * FROM employees WHERE age > 30 AND department = 'HR';

SELECT * FROM employees WHERE age < 30 OR department = 'Finance';
SELECT * FROM employees WHERE NOT department = 'HR';

d. ORDER BY: This clause is used to sort the result set in ascending or descending order.

SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name ORDER BY column1 ASC|DESC;

 Example:

SELECT * FROM employees ORDER BY last_name ASC;

2. Aggregate Functions

a. COUNT(): Counts the number of rows that match a specified condition.

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees;

b. SUM(): Calculates the sum of a numeric column.

SELECT SUM(salary) FROM employees;

c. AVG(): Calculates the average value of a numeric column.

SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employees;

d. MIN() and MAX(): Finds the minimum or maximum value in a column.

SELECT MIN(age) FROM employees;

SELECT MAX(salary) FROM employees;

e. GROUP BY: This clause groups rows sharing a property (like values in a column) into
summary rows.

SELECT department, COUNT(*) FROM employees GROUP BY department;

f. HAVING: HAVING is used to filter records after the GROUP BY clause.

SELECT department, AVG(salary) FROM employees GROUP BY department HAVING

AVG(salary) > 50000;

3. Join Operations
a. INNER JOIN: Returns rows when there is a match in both tables.

SELECT employees.first_name, departments.department_name

FROM employees
INNER JOIN departments ON employees.department_id = departments.department_id;

b. LEFT JOIN (LEFT OUTER JOIN): Returns all rows from the left table and matched rows
from the right table.

SELECT employees.first_name, departments.department_name

FROM employees
LEFT JOIN departments ON employees.department_id = departments.department_id;

c. RIGHT JOIN (RIGHT OUTER JOIN): Returns all rows from the right table and matched
rows from the left table.

SELECT employees.first_name, departments.department_name

FROM employees
RIGHT JOIN departments ON employees.department_id = departments.department_id;

d. FULL JOIN (FULL OUTER JOIN): Returns rows when there is a match in either left or
right table.

SELECT employees.first_name, departments.department_name

FROM employees
FULL OUTER JOIN departments ON employees.department_id =
departments.department_id;

e. CROSS JOIN: Returns the Cartesian product of two tables (all combinations).

SELECT * FROM employees CROSS JOIN departments;

4. Subqueries

a. Subquery in SELECT: You can use a subquery in the SELECT statement to return a value.

SELECT first_name, (SELECT department_name FROM departments WHERE

department_id = employees.department_id)
FROM employees;

b. Subquery in WHERE: You can use subqueries in the WHERE clause to filter results.

SELECT first_name FROM employees WHERE department_id = (SELECT department_id

FROM departments WHERE department_name = 'HR');

c. Subquery in FROM

You can use a subquery in the FROM clause to treat the result as a table

SELECT department, COUNT(*)

FROM (SELECT department FROM employees WHERE age > 30) AS filtered_employees
GROUP BY department;

5. Creating Tables and Modifying Data

a. CREATE TABLE: Used to create a new table.

CREATE TABLE employees (

employee_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
first_name VARCHAR(50),
last_name VARCHAR(50),
age INT,
department VARCHAR(50)
);

b. ALTER TABLE: Used to modify an existing table.

ALTER TABLE employees ADD email VARCHAR(100);

ALTER TABLE employees DROP COLUMN age;

c. INSERT INTO: Used to insert new records into a table.

INSERT INTO employees (employee_id, first_name, last_name, department)

VALUES (1, 'John', 'Doe', 'HR');

d. UPDATE: Used to update existing records.

UPDATE employees SET department = 'Finance' WHERE employee_id = 1;

e. DELETE: Used to delete records.

DELETE FROM employees WHERE employee_id = 1;

6. Indexes and Constraints

a. INDEX: Used to create an index on a table to improve search speed.

CREATE INDEX idx_last_name ON employees (last_name);

b. PRIMARY KEY: A column or set of columns that uniquely identify each row in the table.

CREATE TABLE employees (

employee_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
first_name VARCHAR(50)
);

c. FOREIGN KEY

A column that creates a relationship between two tables.

CREATE TABLE orders (
order_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
employee_id INT,
FOREIGN KEY (employee_id) REFERENCES employees(employee_id)
);

d. UNIQUE: Ensures all values in a column are unique.

CREATE TABLE employees (

email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE
);

e. CHECK: Ensures that a value meets a specified condition.

CREATE TABLE employees (

age INT CHECK (age >= 18)
);

f. NOT NULL: Ensures that a column cannot have NULL values.

CREATE TABLE employees (

first_name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL
);

7. Transactions

a. BEGIN TRANSACTION

BEGIN TRANSACTION;

b. COMMIT: Commits a transaction, saving the changes.

COMMIT;

c. ROLLBACK: Rolls back a transaction, undoing changes.

ROLLBACK;

8. SQL Data Types

 INT: Integer numbers.

 VARCHAR(n): Variable-length string with a maximum length of n.
 CHAR(n): Fixed-length string.
 DATE: Date in the format YYYY-MM-DD.
 DECIMAL(p,s): Fixed-point numbers with precision p and scale s.
 FLOAT: Floating-point numbers.
 TEXT: Long text strings.