NCM 110A Laboratory

Nursing Informatics Module 1

Second Semester, AY 2023 - 2024

Module I: Computer Basics

This Module lays a foundation for one of the most influential forces available in modern times, the
computer. A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions, which tells
the machine what to do. It is capable of accepting data (input), processing data arithmetically and
logically, producing output from the processing, and storing the results for future use. The Module
begins with the characteristics, evolution, and various generations of computers. The discussion also
explores the classification of computers and their features. The Module concludes with an overview on
basic computer units and computer applications.

MODULE OBJECTIVES

After reading this Module, you will be able to understand:

• The characteristics of computers that make them an essential part of every technology
• The evolution of computers, from refining of abacus to supercomputers
• The advancement in technology that has changed the way the computers operate, leading to
powerful, efficient and cheaper computers
• The classification of computers into micro, mini, mainframe and supercomputers
• The computer system, which includes components such as the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and
I/O devices
• The application of computers in various fields, which increases efficiency, thus, resulting in
proper utilization of resources
 NCM 110A Laboratory
Nursing Informatics Module 1
Second Semester, AY 2023 - 2024

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In the beginning of the civilization, people used fingers and pebbles for computing purposes. In fact, the
word digitus in Latin actually means finger and calculus means pebble. This gives a clue into the origin of
early computing concepts. With the development of civilization, the computing needs also grew. The
need for a mechanism to perform lengthy calculations led to the invention of, first, calculator and then
computers.

The term computer is derived from the word compute, which means to calculate. A computer is an
electronic machine devised for performing calculations and controlling operations that can be expressed
either in logical or in numerical terms. In simple words, a computer is an electronic device that performs
diverse operations with the help of instructions to process the data in order to achieve desired results.
Although the application domain of a computer depends totally on human creativity and imagination, it
covers a huge area of applications including education, industries, government, medicine, scientific
research, law, and even music and arts.

Computers are one of the most influential forces available in modern times. Harnessing the power of
computers enables relatively limited and fallible human capacities for memory, logical decision making,
reaction and perfection to be extended to almost infinite levels. Millions of complex calculations can be
done in a mere fraction of time; difficult decisions can be made with unerring accuracy for
comparatively little cost. Computers are widely seen as instruments for future progress and as tools to
achieve sustainability by way of improved access to information with the help of video-conferencing and
e-mail. Indeed, computers have left such an impression on modern civilization that we call this era as
the “information age”.

1.1.1 Characteristics of Computers

The human race developed computers so that it could perform intricate operations, such as calculation
and data processing, or simply for entertainment. Today, much of the world's infrastructure runs on
computers and it has profoundly changed our lives, mostly for the better. Let us discuss some of the
characteristics of computers, which make them an essential part of every emerging technology and such
a desirable tool in human development.

Speed: The computers process data at an extremely fast rate, at millions or billions of instructions per
second. A computer can perform a huge task in a few seconds that otherwise a normal human being
may take days or even years to complete. The speed of a computer is calculated in MHz (megahertz),
that is, one million instructions per second. At present, a powerful computer can perform billions of
operations in just one second.

Accuracy: Besides the efficiency, the computers are also very accurate. The level of accuracy depends on
the instructions and the type of machines being used. Since the computer is capable of doing only what
it is instructed to do, faulty instructions for data processing may lead to faulty results. This is known
as Garbage In Garbage Out (GIGO).
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Nursing Informatics Module 1
Second Semester, AY 2023 - 2024

Diligence: Computer, being a machine, does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness and lack of
concentration. If four million calculations have to be performed, then the computer will perform the last
four-millionth calculation with the same accuracy and speed as the first calculation.

Reliability: Generally, reliability is the measurement of the performance of a computer, which is

measured against some predetermined standard for operation without any failure. The major reason
behind the reliability of the computers is that, at hardware level, it does not require any human
intervention between its processing operations. Moreover, computers have built-in diagnostic
capabilities, which help in the continuous monitoring of the system.

Storage Capability: Computers can store large amounts of data and can recall the required information
almost instantaneously. The main memory of the computer is relatively small and it can hold only a
certain amount of data; therefore, the data are stored on secondary storage devices such as magnetic
tape or disks. Small sections of data can be accessed very quickly from these storage devices and
brought into the main memory, as and when required, for processing.

Versatility: Computers are quite versatile in nature. It can perform multiple tasks simultaneously with
equal ease. For example, at one moment it can be used to draft a letter, another moment it can be used
to play music and in between, one can print a document as well. All this work is possible by changing the
program (computer instructions).

Resource Sharing: In the initial stages of development, computers used to be isolated machines. With
the tremendous growth in computer technologies, computers today have the capability to connect with
each other. This has made the sharing of costly resources like printers possible. Apart from device
sharing, data and information can also be shared among groups of computers, thus creating a large
information and knowledge base.

THINGS TO REMEMBER
Limitations of a Computer

• A computer can only perform what it is programmed to do.

• The computer needs well-defined instructions to perform any operation. Hence, computers are
unable to give any conclusion without going through intermediate steps.
• A computer's use is limited in areas where qualitative considerations are important. For instance,
it can make plans based on situations and information, but it cannot foresee whether they will
succeed.

1.2 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS

The need for a device to do calculations along with the growth in commerce and other human activities
explains the evolution of computers. Having the right tool to perform these tasks has always been
important for human beings. In their quest to develop efficient computing devices, humankind
developed many apparatuses. However, many centuries elapsed before technology was adequately
advanced to develop computers.
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Nursing Informatics Module 1
Second Semester, AY 2023 - 2024

In the beginning, when the task was simply counting or adding, people used either their fingers or
pebbles along lines in the sand. In order to conveniently have the sand and pebbles all the time, people
in Asia Minor built a counting device called abacus. This device allowed users to do calculations using a
system of sliding beads arranged on a rack. The abacus was simple to operate and was used worldwide
for centuries. In fact, it is still used in many countries (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1 Abacus

With the passage of time, humankind invented many computing devices, such as Napier bones and slide
rule. It took many centuries, however, for the next significant advancement in computing devices. In
1642, a French mathematician, Blaise Pascal, invented the first functional automatic calculator. This
brass rectangular box, also called a Pascaline, used eight movable dials to add numbers up to eight
figures long (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2 Pascaline

In 1694, a German mathematician, Gottfried Wilhem von Leibniz, extended Pascal's design to perform
multiplication, division and to find square root. This machine is known as the Stepped Reckoner. It was
the first mass-produced calculating device, which was designed to perform multiplication by repeated
addition. Like its predecessor, Leibniz's mechanical multiplier worked by a system of gears and dials. The
only problem with this device was that it lacked mechanical precision in its construction and was not
very reliable.

The real beginning of computers as we know them today, however, lay with an English mathematics
professor, Charles Babbage. In 1822, he proposed a machine to perform differential equations, called
a Difference Engine. Powered by steam and as large as a locomotive, the machine would have a stored
program and could perform calculations and print the results automatically. However, Babbage never
quite made a fully functional difference engine and in 1833 he quitted working on this machine to
concentrate on the Analytical Engine. The basic design of this engine included input devices in the form
of perforated cards containing operating instructions and a “store” for memory of 1,000 numbers of up
to 50 decimal digits long. It also contained a control unit to allow processing instructions in any
sequence and output devices to produce printed results. Babbage borrowed the idea of punch cards to
encode the machine's instructions from Joseph-Marie Jacquard's loom. Although the analytical engine
was never constructed, it outlined the basic elements of a modern computer.
In 1889, Herman Hollerith, who worked for the US Census Bureau, also applied Jacquard's loom concept
to computing. Unlike Babbage's idea of using perforated cards to instruct the machine, Hollerith's
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method used cards to store the data, which he fed into a machine that compiled the results
mechanically (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3 Hollerith's Tabulator

The start of World War II produced a substantial need for computer capacity, especially for military
purposes. One early success was the Mark I, which was built as a partnership between Harvard Aiken
and IBM in 1944. This electronic calculating machine used relays and electromagnetic components to
replace mechanical components. In 1946, John Eckert and John Mauchly of the Moore School of
Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania developed the Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator (ENIAC). This computer used electronic vacuum tubes to make the internal parts of the
computer. It embodied almost all the components and concepts of today's high-speed, electronic
computers. Later on, Eckert and Mauchly also proposed the development of the Electronic Discrete
Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC). It was the first electronic computer to use the stored program
concept introduced by John Von Neumann. It also had the capability of conditional transfer of control,
that is, the computer could stop any time and then resume operations. In 1949, at the Cambridge
University, a team headed by Maurice Wilkes developed the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Calculator (EDSAC), which was also based on John Von Neumann's stored program concept. This
machine used mercury delay lines for memory and vacuum tubes for logic. The Eckert–Mauchly
Corporation manufactured the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) in 1951 and its implementation
marked the real beginning of the computer era.

In the 1960s, efforts to design and develop the fastest possible computer with the greatest capacity
reached a turning point with the Livermore Advanced Research Computer (LARC), which had access time
of less than 1 μs (pronounced as microsecond) and the total capacity of 100,000,000 words. During this
period, the major computer manufacturers began to offer a range of capabilities and prices, as well as
accessories such as card feeders, page printers and cathode ray tube displays. During the 1970s, the
trend shifted towards a larger range of applications for cheaper computer systems. During this period,
many business organizations adopted computers for their offices. The vacuum deposition of transistors
became the norm and entire computer assemblies became available on tiny “chips”.

In the 1980s, Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) design, in which hundreds of thousands of transistors
were placed on a single chip, became increasingly common. The “shrinking” trend continued with the
introduction of personal computers (PCs), which are programmable machines small enough and
inexpensive enough to be purchased and used by individuals. Microprocessors equipped with the read-
only memory (ROM), which stores constantly used and unchanging programs, performed an increased
number of functions. By the late 1980s, some PCs were run by microprocessors that were capable of
handling 32 bits of data at a time and processing about 4,000,000 instructions per second. By the 1990s,
PCs became part of everyday life. This transformation was the result of the invention of
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Nursing Informatics Module 1
Second Semester, AY 2023 - 2024

the microprocessor, a processor on a single integrated circuit (IC) chip. The trend continued leading to
the development of smaller and smaller microprocessors with a proportionate increase in processing
powers. The computer technology continues to experience huge growth. Computer networking,
electronic mail and electronic publishing are just a few applications that have grown in recent years.
Advances in technologies continue to produce cheaper and more powerful computers, offering the
promise that in the near future, computers or terminals will reside in most, if not all, homes, offices and
schools.

1.3 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

The history of computer development is often discussed with reference to the different generations of
computing devices. In computer terminology, the word generation is described as a stage of
technological development or innovation. A major technological development that fundamentally
changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful, and
more efficient and reliable devices, characterizes each generation of computers. According to the type
of “processor” installed in a machine, there are five generations of computers.

1.3.1 First Generation (1940 to 1956): Vacuum Tubes

First-generation computers were vacuum tubes/thermionic valve-based machines. These computers

used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. A magnetic drum is a metal cylinder
coated with magnetic iron oxide material on which data and programs can be stored. The input was
based on punched cards and paper tape, and the output was in the form of printouts (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4 Vacuum Tube

First-generation computers relied on binary-coded language also called machine language (language of
0s and 1s) to perform operations and were able to solve only one problem at a time. Each machine was
fed with different binary codes and hence, were difficult to program. This resulted in lack of versatility
and speed. In addition, to run on different types of computers, instructions must be rewritten or
recompiled.

Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC and UNIVAC.

Characteristics of First-generation Computers

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Nursing Informatics Module 1
Second Semester, AY 2023 - 2024

• These computers were based on vacuum tube technology.

• These were the fastest computing devices of their times (computation time was in milliseconds).
• These computers were very large and required a lot of space for installation.
• Since thousands of vacuum tubes were used, they generated a large amount of heat. Therefore,
air conditioning was essential.
• These were non-portable and very slow equipment.
• They lacked in versatility and speed.
• They were very expensive to operate and used a large amount of electricity.
• These machines were unreliable and prone to frequent hardware failures. Hence, constant
maintenance was required.
• Since machine language was used, these computers were difficult to program and use.
• Each individual component had to be assembled manually. Hence, commercial appeal of these
computers was poor.

1.3.2 Second Generation (1956 to 1963): Transistors

Second-generation computers used transistors, which were superior to vacuum tubes. A transistor is
made up of semiconductor material like germanium and silicon. It usually has three leads (see Figure
1.5) and performs electrical functions such as voltage, current or power amplification with low power
requirements. Since a transistor is a small device, the physical size of computers was greatly reduced.
Computers became smaller, faster, cheaper, energy efficient and more reliable than their predecessors.
In second-generation computers, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic disks
as the secondary storage devices. However, they still relied on punched cards for the input and
printouts for the output.

Figure 1.5 Transistor

One of the major developments of this generation includes the progress from machine language to
assembly language. Assembly language uses mnemonics (abbreviations) for instructions rather than
numbers, for example, ADD for addition and MULT for multiplication. As a result, programming became
less cumbersome. Early high-level programming languages such as COBOL and FORTRAN also came into
existence in this period.

Examples: PDP-8, IBM 1401 and IBM 7090.

Characteristics of Second-generation Computers

• These machines were based on transistor technology.
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Second Semester, AY 2023 - 2024

• These were smaller as compared to the first-generation computers.

• The computational time of these computers was reduced to microseconds from milliseconds.
• These were more reliable and less prone to hardware failure. Hence, they required less frequent
maintenance.
• These were more portable and generated less amount of heat.
• Assembly language was used to program computers. Hence, programming became more time-
efficient and less cumbersome.
• Second-generation computers still required air conditioning.
• Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit was still required.

1.3.3 Third Generation (1964 to Early 1970s): Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit, also called an IC, was the trait of the third-generation
computers. An IC consists of a single chip (usually silicon) with many components such as transistors and
resistors fabricated on it. ICs replaced several individually wired transistors. This development made
computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient (Figure 1.6).

Figure 1.6 Integrated Circuit

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third-generation computers through
keyboards and monitors, and interfaced with the operating system. This allowed the device to run many
different applications simultaneously with a central program that monitored the memory. For the first
time, computers became accessible to mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their
predecessors.

Examples: NCR 395 and B6500.

Characteristics of Third-generation Computers

• These computers were based on IC technology.
• These were able to reduce the computational time from microseconds to nanoseconds.
• These were easily portable and more reliable than the second-generation computers.
• These devices consumed less power and generated less heat. In some cases, air conditioning was
still required.
• The size of these computers was smaller as compared to previous-generation computers.
• Since hardware rarely failed, the maintenance cost was quite low.
• Extensive use of high-level languages became possible.
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• Manual assembling of individual components was not required, so it reduced the large
requirement of labor and cost. However, highly sophisticated technologies were required for the
manufacturing of IC chips.
• Commercial production became easier and cheaper.

1.3.4 Fourth Generation (Early 1970s to Till Date): Microprocessors

The fourth generation is an extension of third generation technology. Although, the technology of this
generation is still based on the IC, these have been made readily available to us because of the
development of the microprocessor (circuits containing millions of transistors). The Intel 4004 chip,
which was developed in 1971, took the IC one step further by locating all the components of a computer
(CPU, memory and I/O controls) on a minuscule chip. A microprocessor is built on to a single piece of
silicon, known as chip. It is about 0.5 cm along one side and no more than 0.05 cm thick.
The fourth-generation computers led to an era of Large Scale Integration (LSI) and VLSI technology. LSI
technology allowed thousands of transistors to be constructed on one small slice of silicon material,
whereas VLSI squeezed hundreds of thousands of components on to a single chip. Ultra Large Scale
Integration (ULSI) increased that number to the millions. This way computers became smaller and
cheaper than ever before (Figure 1.7).

Figure 1.7 Microprocessor

The fourth-generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable and affordable. As a result,
it gave rise to the PC revolution. During this period, magnetic core memories were substituted by
semiconductor memories, which resulted in faster random access main memories. Moreover, secondary
memories such as hard disks became economical, smaller and bigger in capacity. The other significant
development of this era was that these computers could be linked together to form networks, which
eventually led to the development of the Internet. This generation also saw the development of the
Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs), mouse and handheld devices. Despite many advantages, this
generation required complex and sophisticated technology for the manufacturing of the CPU and the
other components.

Examples: Apple II, Altair 8800 and CRAY-1.

Characteristics of Fourth-generation Computers

• These computers are microprocessor-based systems.
• These are very small in size.
• These are the cheapest among all the other generation computers.
• These are portable and quite reliable.
• These machines generate negligible amount of heat, hence do not require air conditioning.
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Second Semester, AY 2023 - 2024

• Hardware failure is negligible so minimum maintenance is required.

• The production cost is very low.
• The GUI and pointing devices enabled users to learn to use the computer quickly.
• Interconnection of computers led to better communication and resource sharing.

1.3.5 Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Artificial Intelligence

The dream of creating a human-like computer that would be capable of reasoning and reaching at a
decision through a series of “what-if-then” analyses has existed since the beginning of computer
technology. Such a computer would learn from its mistakes and possess the skill of experts. These are
the objectives for creating the fifth generation of computers. The starting point for the fifth generation
of computers had been set in the early 1990s. The process of developing fifth-generation computers is
still in the development stage. However, the expert system concept is already in use. The expert systems
defined as a computer system that attempts to mimic the thought process and reasoning of experts in
specific areas. Three characteristics can be identified with the fifth-generation computers. These are:

Mega Chips: Fifth-generation computers will use Super Large Scale Integrated (SLSI) chips, which will
result in the production of microprocessors having millions of electronic components on a single chip. In
order to store instructions and information, fifth-generation computers require a great amount of
storage capacity. Mega chips may enable the computer to approximate the memory capacity of the
human mind.

Parallel Processing: Computers with one processor access and execute only one instruction at a time.
This is called serial processing. However, fifth-generation computers will use multiple processors and
perform parallel processing, thereby accessing several instructions at once and working on them at the
same time.

Artificial Intelligence (AI): It refers to a series of related technologies that try to simulate and reproduce
human behavior, including thinking, speaking and reasoning. AI comprises a group of related
technologies: expert systems (ES), natural language processing (NLP), speech recognition, vision
recognition and robotics.

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

These days, computers are available in many sizes and types. Some computers can fit in the palm of the
hand, while some can occupy the entire room. Computers also differ based on their data-processing
abilities. Based on the physical size, performance and application areas, we can generally divide
computers into four major categories: micro, mini, mainframe and supercomputers (Figure 1.8).
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Second Semester, AY 2023 - 2024

Figure 1.8 Classification of Computers

1.4.1 Microcomputers

A microcomputer is a small, low-cost digital computer, which usually consists of a microprocessor, a

storage unit, an input channel and an output channel, all of which may be on one chip inserted into one
or several PC boards. The addition of power supply and connecting cables, appropriate peripherals
(keyboard, monitor, printer, disk drives and others), an operating system and other software programs
can provide a complete microcomputer system. The micro-computer is generally the smallest of the
computer family. Originally, these were designed for individual users only, but nowadays they have
become powerful tools for many businesses that, when networked together, can serve more than one
user.

Desktop Computer: The desktop computer, also known as the PC, is principally intended for stand-alone
use by an individual. These are the most-common type of microcomputers. These microcomputers
typically consist of a system unit, a display monitor, a keyboard, an internal hard disk storage and other
peripheral devices. The main reason behind the importance of the PCs is that they are not very
expensive for the individuals or the small businesses. (Figure 1.9).

Figure 1.9 Desktop Computer

Name at least three desktop computers manufacturers today.

1. ___________________
INVESTIGATE!!! 2. ___________________
3. ____________________

Laptop: A laptop is a portable computer that a user can carry around. Since the laptop resembles a
notebook, it is also known as the notebook computer. Laptops are small computers enclosing all the
basic features of a normal desktop computer. The biggest advantage of laptops is that they are
lightweight and one can use them anywhere and at anytime, especially when one is travelling.
Moreover, they do not need any external power supply as a rechargeable battery is completely self-
contained in them. However, they are expensive as compared to desktop computers (Figure 1.10).
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Figure 1.10 Laptop

Hand-held Computers: A hand-held computer such as a PDA is a portable computer that can
conveniently be stored in a pocket (of sufficient size) and used while the user is holding it. PDAs are
essentially small portable computers and are slightly bigger than the common calculators. A PDA user
generally uses a pen or electronic stylus, instead of a keyboard for input. As shown in (Figure 1.11), the
monitor is very small and is the only apparent form of output. Since these computers can be easily fitted
on the top of the palm, they are also known as palmtop computers. Handheld computers usually have
no disk drive; rather, they use small cards to store programs and data. However, they can be connected
to a printer or a disk drive to generate output or store data. They have limited memory and are less
powerful as compared to desktop computers. Some examples of hand-held computers are Apple
Newton, Casio Cassiopeia and Franklin eBookMan.

Figure 1.11 Personal Digital Assistant

1.4.2 Minicomputers

In the early 1960s, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) started shipping its PDP series computer, which
the press described and referred to as minicomputers. A minicomputer is a small digital computer,
which normally is able to process and store less data than a mainframe but more than a microcomputer,
while doing so less rapidly than a mainframe but more rapidly than a microcomputer. It is about the size
of a two-drawer filing cabinet. Generally, these computers are used as desktop devices that are often
connected to a mainframe in order to perform the auxiliary operations (Figure 1.12).
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Figure 1.12 Minicomputer

Name at least three widely used minicomputers nowadays.

INVESTIGATE!!!!!

1.4.3 Mainframes

A mainframe is an ultra-high-performance computer made for high-volume, processor-intensive

computing. It consists of a high-end computer processor, with related peripheral devices, capable of
supporting large volumes of data processing, high-performance online transaction processing, and
extensive data storage and retrieval. Normally, it is able to process and store more data than a
minicomputer and far more than a microcomputer. Moreover, it is designed to perform at a faster rate
than a minicomputer and at even faster rate than a microcomputer. Mainframes are the second largest
(in capability and size) of the computer family, the largest being the supercomputers. However,
mainframes can usually execute many programs simultaneously at a high speed, whereas
supercomputers are designed for a single process (Figure 1.13).

Figure 1.13 Mainframe

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1.4.4 Supercomputers

Supercomputers are the special-purpose machines, which are especially designed to maximize the
numbers of floating-point operations per second (FLOPS). Any computer below one gigaflop per second
is not considered a supercomputer. A supercomputer has the highest processing speed at a given time
for solving scientific and engineering problems. Essentially, it contains a number of CPUs that operate in
parallel to make it faster. Its processing speed lies in the range 400–10,000 MFLOPS (millions of floating-
point operations per second). Due to this feature, supercomputers help in many applications including
information retrieval and computer-aided designing (Figure 1.14).

Figure 1.14 Supercomputer

1.5 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

A computer can be viewed as a system, which consists of a number of interrelated components that
work together with the aim of converting data into information. In a computer system, processing is
carried out electronically, usually with little or no intervention from the user.

The general perception of people regarding the computer is that it is an “intelligent thinking machine”.
However, this is not true. Every computer needs to be instructed exactly what to do and how to do. The
instructions given to computers are called programs. Without programs, computers would be useless.
The physical parts that make up a computer (the CPU, input, output and storage unit) are known
as hardware. Any hardware device connected to the computer or any part of the computer outside the
CPU and working memory is known as a peripheral. Some examples of peripherals are keyboards,
mouse and monitors.

1.5.1 Components of a Computer System

There are several computer systems in the market with a wide variety of makes, models and
peripherals. In general, a computer system comprises the following components:

CPU: This unit performs processing of instructions and data inside the computer.
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Input Unit: This unit accepts instructions and data.

Output Unit: This unit communicates the results to the user.
Storage Unit: This unit stores temporary and final results (Figure 1.15).

Figure 1.15 Components of a Computer System

Central Processing Unit: The CPU, also known as a processor, is the brain of the computer system that
processes data (input) and converts it into meaningful information (output). It is referred to as
the administrative section of the computer system that interprets the data and instructions, coordinates
the operations, and supervises the instructions. The CPU works with data in discrete form, that is, either
1 or 0. It counts, lists, compares and rearranges the binary digits of data in accordance with the detailed
program instructions stored within the memory. Eventually, the results of these operations are
translated into characters, numbers and symbols that can be understood by the user. The CPU itself has
three parts:

• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): This unit performs the arithmetic (add, subtract) and logical
operations (and, or) on the data made available to it. Whenever an arithmetic or logical
operation is to be performed, the required data are transferred from the memory unit to the
ALU, the operation is performed and the result is returned to the memory unit. Before the
completion of the processing, data may need to be transferred back and forth several times
between these two sections.
• Control Unit: This unit checks the correctness of the sequence of operations. It fetches the
program instructions from the memory unit, interprets them and ensures correct execution of
the program. It also controls the I/O devices and directs the overall functioning of the other units
of the computer.
• Registers: These are the special-purpose, high-speed temporary memory units that can hold
varied information such as data, instructions, addresses and intermediate results of calculations.
Essentially, they hold the information that the CPU is currently working on. The registers can be
considered as the CPU's working memory, an additional storage location that provides the
advantage of speed.

Note: The circuits necessary to create a CPU for a PC are fabricated on a microprocessor.
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Input, Output and Storage Unit: The user must enter instructions and data into the computer system
before any operation can be performed on the given data. Similarly, after processing the data, the
information must go out from the computer system to the user. For this, every computer system
incorporates the I/O unit that serves as a communication medium between the computer system and
the user.

An input unit accepts instructions and data from the user with the help of input devices such as
keyboard, mouse, light pen, etc. Since the data and instructions entered through different input devices
will be in different form, the input unit converts them into the form that the computer can understand.
After this, the input unit supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer for further
processing.

The output unit performs just opposite to that of input unit. It accepts the output (which is in machine-
coded form) produced by the computer, converts them into the user-understandable form and supplies
the converted results to the user with the help of an output device such as printer, monitor and plotter.

A computer system incorporates a storage unit to store the input entered through the input unit before
processing starts and to store the results produced by the computer before supplying them to the
output unit. The storage unit of a computer comprises two types of memory/storage: primary
and secondary.
• The primary memory, also called the main memory, is the part of a computer that holds the
instructions and data currently being processed by the CPU, the intermediate results produced
during the course of calculations and the recently processed data. While the instructions and
data remain in the main memory, the CPU can access them directly and quickly. However, the
primary memory is quite expensive and has a limited storage capacity.
• Due to the limited size of the primary memory, a computer employs the secondary memory,
which is extensively used for storing data and instructions. It supplies the stored information to
the other units of the computer as and when required. It is less expensive and has higher storage
capacity than the primary memory. Some commonly used secondary storage devices are floppy
disks, hard disks and tape drives (Figure 1.16).

Figure 1.16 Typical Hardware and Peripherals in a Computer System

1.5.2 How Does a Computer Work?

 NCM 110A Laboratory
Nursing Informatics Module 1
Second Semester, AY 2023 - 2024

A computer performs three basic steps to complete any task: input, processing and output. A task is
assigned to a computer in a set of step-by-step instructions, which is known as a program. These
instructions tell the computer what to do with the input in order to produce the required output. A
computer functions in the following manner:

Step 1 The computer accepts the input. The computer input is whatever entered or fed into a
computer system. The input can be supplied by the user (such as by using a keyboard) or by
another computer or device (such as a diskette or CD-ROM). Some examples of input
include the words and symbols in a document, numbers for a calculation, instructions for
completing a process, and so on.

Step 2 The computer processes the data. During this stage, the computer follows the instructions
using the data that have been input. Examples of processing include calculations, sorting
lists of words or numbers and modifying documents according to user instructions.

Step 3 The computer produces output. Computer output is the information that has been
produced by a computer. Some examples of computer output include reports, documents
and graphs. Output can be in several formats, such as printouts, or displayed on the screen
(Figure 1.17).

Figure 1.17 Basic Computer Operations

1.6 APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS

In the last few decades, computer technology has revolutionized the businesses and other aspects of
human life all over the world. Practically, every company, large or small, is now directly or indirectly
dependent on computers for data processing. Computer systems also help in the efficient operation of
railway and airway reservation, hospital records, accounts, electronic banking and so on. Computers not
only save time, but also save paper work. Some of the areas where computers are being used are listed
below.

Science: Scientists have been using computers to develop theories, to analyze and to test the data. The
fast speed and the accuracy of the computer allow different scientific analyses to be carried out. They
can be used to generate detailed studies of how earthquakes affect buildings or pollution affects
weather pattern. Satellite-based applications would not have been possible without the use of
 NCM 110A Laboratory
Nursing Informatics Module 1
Second Semester, AY 2023 - 2024

computers. It would also not be possible to get the information of our solar system and the cosmos
without computers.

Education: Computers have also revolutionized the whole process of education. Currently, the
classrooms, libraries and museums are utilizing computers to make the education much more
interesting. Unlike recorded television shows, computer-aided education (CAE) and computer-based
training (CBT) packages are making learning much more interactive.

Medicine and Healthcare: There has been an increasing use of computers in the field of medicine. Now,
doctors are using computers right from diagnosing the illness to monitoring a patient's status during
complex surgery. By using automated imaging techniques, doctors are able to look inside a person's
body and can study each organ in detail (such as CAT scans or MRI scans), which was not possible few
years ago. There are several examples of special-purpose computers that can operate within the human
body such as a cochlear implant, a special kind of hearing aid that makes it possible for deaf people to
hear.

Engineering/Architecture/Manufacturing: The architects and engineers are extensively using computers

in designing and drawings. Computers can create objects that can be viewed from all the three
dimensions. By using techniques like virtual reality, architects can explore houses that have been
designed but not built. The manufacturing factories are using computerized robotic arms in order to
perform hazardous jobs. Besides, computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) can be used in designing the
product, ordering the parts and planning production. Thus, computers help in coordinating the entire
manufacturing process.

Entertainment: Computers are finding greater use in the entertainment industry. They are used to
control the images and sounds. The special effects, which mesmerize the audience, would not have
been possible without the computers. In addition, computerized animation and colorful graphics have
modernized the film industry.

Communication: E-mail or electronic mail is one of the communication media in which computers are
used. Through an e-mail, messages and reports are passed from one person to one or more persons
with the aid of computers and telephone lines. The advantage of this service is that while transferring
the messages it saves time, avoids wastage of paper, and so on. Moreover, the person who is receiving
the messages can read the messages whenever he is free and can save it, reply it, forward it or delete it
from the computer.

Business Application: This is one of the important uses of the computer. Initially, computers were used
for batch processing jobs, where one does not require the immediate response from the computer.
Currently, computers are mainly used for real-time applications (like at the sales counter) that require
immediate response from the computer. There are various concerns for which computers are used such
as in business forecasting, to prepare pay bills and personal records, in banking operations and data
storage, in various types of life insurance business, and as an aid to management. Businesses are also
using the networking of computers, where a number of computers are connected together to share the
data and the information. Use of an e-mail and the Internet has changed the ways of doing business.

Publishing: Computers have created a field known as Desktop Publishing (DTP). In DTP, with the help of
a computer and a laser printer one can perform the publishing job all by oneself. Many of the tasks
requiring long manual hours, such as making a table of contents and an index, can be automatically
performed using the computers and DTP software.
 NCM 110A Laboratory
Nursing Informatics Module 1
Second Semester, AY 2023 - 2024

Banking: In the field of banking and finance, computers are extensively used. People can use the
Automated Teller Machine (ATM) services 24 hours a day in order to deposit and withdraw cash. When
the different branches of the bank are connected through the computer networks, the inter-branch
transactions, such as drawing cheques and making drafts, can be performed by the computers without
any delay (Figure 1.18).

Figure 1.18 Application Areas of Computer

EVALUATION QUIZ
Read and understand the module, I will post the evaluation this week using google classroom or
Canvas. There will be three types of evaluation to be performed. They are listed below.
a. Fill in the blanks
b. Multiple Choice – Question
c. State True or False

//Compiled by Mr. Dominador B. Abad, Jr. /Jude L. Tayaben