Marine Biomass Anaerobic Biogas
Marine Biomass Anaerobic Biogas
Marine Biomass Anaerobic Biogas
1
The potential of marine biomass for
anaerobic biogas production:
ISBN: 978-1-906410-05-6
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Suggested Citation
Kelly and Dworjanyn. 2008. The potential of marine biomass for anaerobic biogas
production.
ISBN: 978-1-906410-05-6
Author Contributions:
ii
CONTENTS PAGE
Administration page i
Contents iii
List of abbreviations / glossary v
Executive Summary viii
1. INTRODUCTION 1
3. BIOCONVERSION OF SEAWEEDS 31
4. BIOMASS AVAILABILITY 44
iii
4.1.2 Intertidal seaweeds, fucoids and Ascophylum 47
4.2 Sustainability of wild harvest 48
4.3 Culture 52
4.3.1 Extent of culture 52
4.3.2 Productivity in culture 53
4.4 Selection of species for culture in the UK 54
4.5 Methods of culture 55
5. FEASIBILITY STUDY 59
5.1 Introduction 59
5.2 Case Studies 59
5.2.1 The South Shropshire Biogas facility 59
5.2.2 The Western Isles Council, Anaerobic Digester / Municipal Waste
Treatment Centre, Isle of Lewis 63
5.2.3 The Meikle Laught, Ayrshire, on-farm cow slurry biodigester 66
5.3 Analysis 70
5.3.1 Data comparisons 70
5.3.2 Costs of seaweed culture 72
5.3.3 Nutrient availability for seaweed culture 74
6. RECOMMENDATIONS 76
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 90
8. REFERENCES 91
iv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS / GLOSSARY
Biogas: Anaerobic bacteria break down or "digest" organic material in the absence of
oxygen and produce "biogas" a mixture of methane (55-75%) and carbon dioxide
(25-45%) with variable trace amounts of carbon monoxide, nitrogen, hydrogen,
hydrogen sulphide and oxygen
Ha: hectare
HRT: Hydraulic retention time, a measure of the average length of time that a soluble
compound remains in a constructed reactor
kWh: work done by one thousand watts of power acting for one hour
Macroalgae: marine seaweeds. Macroalgae are not „plants‟, but are referred to as
such for convenience in this document.
Methane (CH4): is the major component of the "natural" gas used in many homes for
cooking and heating. It is odourless, colourless, and yields about 1,000 British
Thermal Units (Btu) [252 kilocalories (kcal)] of heat energy per cubic foot (0.028
cubic metres) when burned. Natural gas is a fossil fuel that was created eons ago by
the anaerobic decomposition of organic materials. It is often found in association with
oil and coal. The same types of anaerobic bacteria that produce natural gas also
produce methane today.
TS: total solids, the amount of solids remaining after heating the sample at 105 oC to
constant weight as defined by the NREL Determination of total solids in biomass
Laboratory Analytical Procedure.
v
TWh: Terawatt hour
VS: volatile solids, expressed as a percentage of TS, the TS minus the weight of the
inert material
vi
‘The human race must make use of the vast ocean sea to yield more products
for its benefit and a new era for the mariculture of seaweed for biomass will
definitely come sooner or later’
vii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Concern over greenhouse gas emissions forcing climate change and dwindling oil
reserves has focused debate and research effort on finding alternative sources of
energy. Scotland has the capacity to generate much, or all, of its electrical energy
needs from wind and hydropower and has the potential for offshore energy schemes
generating from wind, waves and tidal streams. The route map to generating
alternative transport fuels is less well defined. A relative shortage of good agricultural
land, high rainfall and a low number of sunshine hours means there is little potential
for producing biofuel (bioethanol or biodiesel) crops.
Marine algae offer a vast renewable energy source for countries around the world
that have a suitable coastline available. They are already farmed on a massive scale
in the Far East and to a much lesser extent in Europe, primarily in France, and on a
research scale in Scotland. Utilising marine as opposed to terrestrial biomass for
energy production circumvents the problem of switching agricultural land from food
to fuel production. In addition, the production of marine biomass will not be limited by
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freshwater supplies, another of the contentious issues of increasing terrestrial biofuel
production.
This report describes the anaerobic digestion (AD) process (Section 1), reviews the
historical harvesting and present production methods of seaweed biomass (Section
2), its conversion to methane (and to a lesser extent ethanol) (Section 3) and the
options for wild harvest versus culture in a UK and Scottish context (Section 4). A
number of case studies have been used to exemplify the current state-of-the-art in
AD and possibilities for energy production (Section 5) and an attempt has been
made to forecast the macroalgal biomass required to produce a similar methane
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yield equivalent to one of the given examples, the South Shropshire Biogas facility.
While Section 5.3 does include some projected figures on methane production,
energy obtainable, nitrogen availability and the costs of farming, this is largely
conjecture and it would be useful to obtain hard data from scale field trials. The
report includes 27 recommendations for future work, including the need for practical,
development and demonstration projects to carry forward some of the concepts and
the need for a government/industry forum to launch the concept (Section 6).
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1. INTRODUCTION
The growth of terrestrial crops for biomass requires the use land and water
and can have implications for both biodiversity and landscape. In the UK, the
production of biomass will ultimately be restricted by the amount of
agricultural land that can be turned over to this purpose. The RCEP report
considers that there are only three types of indigenous biomass, forestry
materials, energy crops e.g. willow and miscanthus, and agricultural residues
such straw from cereal production and poultry litter. The most advanced
energy crop for northern European conditions is short rotation coppice or SRC
of Willow (Salix spp.). The coppice is established by planting 10-15,000 stems
ha-1, it is pruned in the first year, and the first crop is harvested three to five
years after planting. Willow and poplar perform best in wetter areas and
miscanthus yields are higher in warm areas less prone to frost, so there are
definable limits as to the amount of land that potentially suited to each type of
crop. However, in the current document we review the potential of another
type of biomass, marine biomass, which has the additional benefit that it can
be used to generate transport fuels.
Both the UK Government and the Scottish Government have signed relevant
international protocols or directives, or have set unilateral targets for
renewable electricity, biofuels for transport, combined heat and power
systems (CHP), and reduction of carbon and greenhouse gas emissions. The
most prominent targets are those that relate to carbon emissions. The Kyoto
protocol commits the UK to cutting greenhouse gas emissions by 12.5%
between 2008 and 2012. The UK Government has gone further and targeted
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20% cuts by 2010. A recent report (Scottish Renewables, 2007) indicates that
the former 12.5% target is likely to be met but that the UK is unlikely to hit the
20% target on time. The Scottish Government has estimated that Scotland
has sufficient renewable energy resources to provide up to 75% of the UK‟s
electricity needs. Today Scotland‟s renewable electricity sector is meeting
around 16% of Scotland‟s electricity needs, primarily through hydro and wind
power. However, it should be noted this figure is over optimistic in comparison
with Scottish Renewables‟ statistics of the total present renewable energy
generation capacity in Scotland, including heat as 2.6 TW (Table 1.1).
The Department for Transport‟s web-site notes there are two main types of
biofuel - biodiesel and bioethanol and describes biogas as a relatively 'niche
3
product‟. So while the means for obtaining renewable electricity supplies is
relatively well mapped out, the route to achieving renewable transport fuels is
much less well defined.
Biodiesel: is generally produced from 'oily' crops like rapeseed, sunflower, oil
palm etc, or recovered from used cooking oil. Because these oils are more
viscous than fossil diesel, they require processing (transesterification) to make
them usable. Biodiesel in the UK comes from a small domestic cottage
industry that for the large part converts used cooking oil, or is imported, for
example from Germany. Recently, a number of new plants have been
established (e.g. the Argent plant in Motherwell, which is producing 50 million
litres a year). It is currently available as a blend with fossil diesel at about 100
filling stations in the UK, including a number of Tesco stores in SE England
(Department of Transport, 2007).
Ethanol fuel blends are widely sold in the United States. The most common
blend is 10% ethanol and 90% petrol (E10). Vehicle engines require no
modifications to run on E10 and vehicle warranties are unaffected by its use.
4
It can be used at higher blends (most Brazilian petrol is 23% ethanol), but not
without some (relatively cheap) vehicle modifications. Ford and others are
already producing 'E85 flexi-fuel vehicles' which can run on any petrol
containing anywhere from 0 – 85% ethanol. It is more expensive to produce
than petrol, especially from crops like wheat, but countries like Brazil can
produce it very efficiently from sugar cane (prices as low as 7p per litre before
import tariffs, which are currently around 20p per litre). As a consequence it is
produced in huge volumes by Brazil and the US. Roughly three per cent of all
US gasoline sales were bioethanol in 2005. Bioethanol is not produced at all
in the UK although some companies, including British Sugar, have announced
plans to do so. In March 2006, bioethanol sales amounted to some 8 million
litres (about 0.4 per cent of total UK petrol sales) (Department of Transport,
2007).
Section 1.2 provides a basic insight into the process of anaerobic digestion,
the main substrates and reactor types available and gives an overview of the
current uses of biogas. It has purposely largely been confined to discussion of
on-farm digesters and does not attempt to review the large body of
information of the treatment of sewage sludge or the contribution of industrial
or landfill digestion to renewable energy. For general descriptions of
processes and definitions it draws principally from the sources Monnet F.
5
(2003), Friends of the Earth (2004), Lusk (1998) and Gracia (2005) which
have recently reviewed the subject.
Anecdotal evidence indicates that biogas was used for heating bath water in
Assyria during the 10th century BC and in Persia during the 16th century. In
1808, Sir Humphry Davy determined that methane was present in the gases
produced during the AD of cattle manure. The first digestion plant was built at
a leper colony in Bombay, India in 1859. AD reached England in 1895 when
biogas was recovered from a „carefully designed‟ sewage treatment facility
and used to fuel street lamps in Exeter (Lusk, 1998). However it has been the
developing countries such as China and India, rather than Europe, that have
truly embraced the AD technology in small scale energy and sanitation plants.
It is estimated that in China there are between four and six million family-
sized, low technology digesters used to provide gas for cooking, lighting and
to sanitise manure (Garcia, 2005). However, in recent times, European
countries have come under pressure to re-examine their AD options mainly
because of increasing energy prices and more stringent environmental
regulations.
6
Anaerobic digesters are commonly used for sewage treatment or for
managing animal waste but almost any organic material can be processed in
this manner, including waste paper, grass clippings, leftover food, sewage
and animal waste. In the UK it is the process of choice for treating sewage
sludges and an increasing percentage of the UK landfill sites recover
anaerobically produced biogas for power generation. Anaerobic digesters can
also be fed with specially grown energy crops to boost biodegradable content
and hence increase biogas production. The material to be processed is often
shredded, minced, or hydrocrushed to increase the surface area available to
microbes in the digesters and hence increase the speed of digestion. The
material is then fed into an air tight digester where the anaerobic treatment
takes place. Anaerobic digestion has two key advantages compared to
competitive renewable energies. These are that it can utilise waste (and
therefore heterogeneous biomass) as a feedstock and secondly the process
is completely unobtrusive, unless there are accidental gas emissions which
are malodorous. The major disadvantage of anaerobic digestion, in common
with other bio and fossil fuels, is the transport of feedstock and disposal of
residuals after processing. Anaerobic digestion of solid biomass feedstocks
will leave at least twice the amount of residue compared to the ash resulting
from its combustion.
Since the gas is not released directly into the atmosphere and the carbon
dioxide comes from an organic source with a short carbon cycle, biogas does
not contribute to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations;
because of this, it is considered to be an environmentally friendly energy
source. From a single batch reaction the production of biogas is not a steady
stream; it is highest during the middle of the reaction. In the early stages of
the reaction, little gas is produced because the number of bacteria is still
small. Toward the end of the reaction, only the hardest to digest materials
remain, again leading to a decrease in the amount of biogas produced,
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1.2.1 The biological process
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Thermophilic which takes place optimally around 50°-52° at elevated
temperatures up to 70°C with thermophile bacteria.
Other factors affect the rate and amount of biogas output. These include pH,
water/solids ratio, carbon/nitrogen ratio, mixing of the digesting material, the
particle size of the material being digested, and retention time. Pre-sizing and
mixing of the feed material for a uniform consistency allows the bacteria to
work more quickly. The pH is self-regulating in most cases. Bicarbonate of
soda can be added to maintain a consistent pH; for example, when too much
"green" or material high in nitrogen content is added. It may be necessary to
add water to the feed material if it is too dry or if the nitrogen content is very
high. A carbon:nitrogen ratio of 20/1 to 30/1 is best. Mixing or agitation of the
digesting material can aid the digestion process. Antibiotics in livestock feed
have been known to kill the anaerobic bacteria in digesters. Complete
digestion of feedstock, and retention times, depend on all of the above
factors.
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The residence time in a digester varies with the amount of feed material, type
of material and the temperature. In the case of mesophilic digestion,
residence time may be between 15 and 30 days. Although the thermophilic
phase the process can be faster, requiring only about two weeks to complete,
it is more expensive, requires more energy and is less stable than the
mesophilic process. Therefore, the mesophilic process is still widely in use.
Many continuous digesters have mechanical or hydraulic devices to mix the
contents and to allow excess material to be continuously extracted to maintain
a reasonably constant volume.
The principal by-products of anaerobic digestion are the biogas and the
digestate. The biogas is comprised mostly of methane and carbon dioxide and
small amounts of hydrogen sulphide. The digestate is a sludge-liquor mixture.
Depending on the substrate digested, the sludge (acidogenic digestate) can
be a stable organic material. Where woody or fibrous substrates have been
digested it will be comprised largely of lignin and chitin, with a variety of
mineral components, which can be used as compost or to make low grade
building products such as fibreboard. The liquid (methanogenic digestate) is
rich in nutrients and can be an excellent fertilizer, again, dependent on the
quality of the material being digested.
If the digested materials include low levels of toxic heavy metals or synthetic
organic materials such as pesticides, the effect of digestion is to significantly
concentrate such materials in the digester liquor. In such cases further
treatment will be required in order to dispose of this liquid properly. In extreme
cases, the disposal costs and the environmental risks posed by such
materials can offset any environmental gains provided by the use of biogas.
This is a significant risk when treating sewage from industrialised catchments.
The sludge liquor mixture has to be separated by one of a variety of ways, the
most common of which is filtration. Excess water is also sometimes treated in
sequencing batch reactors for discharge into sewers or for irrigation. Digestion
can be either wet or dry. Dry digestion refers to mixtures which have a solid
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content of 30% or greater, whereas wet digestion refers to mixtures of 15% or
less.
The two main types of operations are batch and continuous. Batch is the
simplest, with the biomass added to the reactor at the beginning and sealed
for the duration of the process. Batch reactors can suffer from odour issues
which can be a severe problem during emptying cycles. In the continuous
process, which is the more common type, organic matter is constantly added
to the reactor and the end products are constantly removed, resulting in a
much more constant production of biogas. In continuously stirred tank
reactors (CSTR) the content is continually charged and discharged and
homogeneously mixed at all times. An agitator can be used to mix the
contents, the power required for mixing varies according to the size and
shape of the digester. Alternatively, in more innovative designs, mixing is
performed by returning some of the biogas produced to the base of the
reactor, so the bubbling gas causes the mixing (L. Lewis, Greenfinch Ltd.,
pers comm.), thereby eliminating the need for moving parts inside the
digester. There are several benefits to mixing: inoculation of fresh substrate
with digestate, maintaining contact between bacteria and the feedstock, even
distribution of heat, avoiding scum and sediment formation, release of biogas
bubbles trapped in the substrate.
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from catalytic reforming, an oil refinery process that also produces significant
amounts of hydrogen along with high octane rating gasoline.
The development of solid waste biogas plants was stepped up during the
second World War and by the end of the 1950‟s there were 48 large scale
plants in operation in Germany and half of the gas production was used to fuel
cars. Since then, with the increasing intensification of agricultural methods,
the over-application of manure to the land has come to be seen as the major
source of nitrates and phosphates leaching to groundwater and contaminating
surface waters. Increasing awareness of pollution problems together with the
inadequate management of animal manure and organic waste have been
important drivers in creating environmental regulations that force the
consideration of methods to reduce the impact of these products. In fact
Garcia (2005) states that the most important reason for using AD is to reduce
the environmental impact of organic waste.
In the mid-eighties the first biogas plants for the digestion of animal manure
were built in Germany. Denmark and East Germany focused on large
centralised biogas plants, whereas in West Germany mainly farm-scale
biogas plants were contructed. German biogas engineers now have almost 20
years experience in the construction of biogas plants. Fischer et al, (2001)
estimated at the end of 2001 there were 1,600 biogas plants in operation on
farms, primarily due to investment funding and payment for each kWh
delivered to the public energy grid. In Germany, over 2,500 on-farm digesters
are currently in operation (Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, 2007),
compared with approximately 30 within the UK. A study in Northern Ireland in
1991 concluded that given oil prices and the capital costs for digesters, on-
farm AD in Northern Ireland was not a viable economic proposition. But as
current oil prices are considerably greater than those in 1991, on-farm AD
may now be financially viable. In Germany, for example, the current
economics of on-farm AD are favourable. This is as a result of the Renewable
Energy Sources Act (EEG) 2000 and 2004 that guarantees (for 20 years) a
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premium price for electricity generated from solar energy, hydropower, wind
power, geothermal power and biomass. Furthermore, in Germany more than
90% of the digesters use energy crops as co-substrates to increase the gas
yield (Bohn, et al., 2007).
Many types of biomass have been investigated as possible sources for bio-
ethanol production. However, to date these have largely been of terrestrial
origin and therefore have the disadvantages that if they come from agricultural
land they will compete directly with areas of land that could otherwise be used
to grow food. Another disadvantage is that they often contain large quantities
of refractory materials (i.e. lignin and cellulosics) that are not often amenable
to fermentation or can lead to the formation of toxic by-products (e.g.
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acetylated compounds, phenolics and furans) during pre-treatment processes.
These by-products have been shown to cause significant detrimental effects
on fermentation processes, ultimately limiting bio-ethanol rates and yields.
The term „kelp‟ was first used in Scotland as a name for seaweed ash, and
then became used as a name for the large brown algae generally. Today the
terms applies generally to any large, upright brown alga that forms dense
forests in temperate regions. The general morphology of kelps (and most
macroalgae) consists of the holdfast that is used to anchor the plant to the
substratum and unlike roots of terrestrial plants does not play a large role in
resource acquisition, the stipe that acts a “stem” or the “trunk” of the plant and
the thallus which is the large flattened blade where most of the light and
nutrients are harvested. The taxa to which kelps belong differ with
geographical area; in the North Atlantic for example, kelps are mostly from the
genus Laminaria, however in Pacific temperate waters the kelps are very
often from the genus Macrocystis. Macrocytis pyrifera found on the North
American Pacific coast is a perennial alga which can reach more than 30m in
length and was the subject of the US harvesting and farming activities
described below.
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2.1 The history of kelp harvesting - from Neushal (1987)
It was the start of World War I that once again caused a revival in the kelp
processing industry as at that time Germany was the world‟s largest
manufacturer of chemicals and had a monopoly of mining potash. At the time
US agriculture was heavily dependent on German imports of potash as
fertiliser for crops such as corn, cotton, potatoes, beets and tobacco, as well
as for glass, gunpowder, soap, matches and dyes. In fact it was feared an
embargo on German imports of potash would affect the nation‟s agricultural
productivity. In 1902, kelp had been identified as a source of potash and by
1911 many small companies were trying to make a profit from processing the
seaweeds of California‟s giant kelp beds. With the outbreak of World War I the
price of German potash doubled and US invested heavily in the struggling
kelp industry and large companies such as the Hercules Powder Company
and Swift & Co‟s. Kelps Works were founded on the Californian coast.
By 1939, and the start of World War II, demand for alginates rose as gelatine,
also used as a food stabiliser, became in short supply as it was used to
manufacture film needed by the armed forces. Kelco grew rapidly and as did
the new technologies for using alginates in screen printing dyes to textiles, in
treating paper to control ink penetration, in the manufacture of waxed paper
and cardboard cartons and to stabilise latex. In 1950 staff at Kelco developed
a modified alginate they called Kelcosol which became widely used in
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desserts, beer, salad dressings and a multitude of other food products. In
1972 the now multi-million dollar company was purchased by the Merck
Corporation. Whereas Kelco had proven to be technically proficient in
developing new uses for alginates, they had paid less attention to the source
of their raw material. The Californian kelp beds, which had once seemed
inexhaustible, had been in decline since the turn of the century, and little
attention had been paid to the actual cultivation of Californian kelp as a
permanent solution to the shortage problem. In contrast, in the People‟s
Republic of China, thousands of acres of seaweed farms were being
developed, and Kelco became faced with the prospect of competition from
Chinese alginate producers.
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Have increased nutrient translocation ability to enhance productivity
and permit culture at high biomass densities
Be a long-lived perennial to avoid the need for frequent replacement
It was also thought the farmed species should attract and support a
community of useful organisms so the farm could also be used to
provide food as well as fuel.
Macrocystis ranked favourably with respect to many of the above criteria and
a series of experiments followed, attempting to measure its growth and
performance when attached to a variety of man-made structures. The first
structure, deployed in 1973 was offshore of San Clemente Island, California,
occupied an area of 3 ha and was made up of polypropylene ropes spaced a
3 m intervals forming a grid. It was moored 10 m below the surface in a depth
of 125 m. Macrocystis plants were attached by a knitting-needle like rod to
pull a cord through the base of the plant and around the grid lines. The farm
did not survive its first winter however as a corner anchor line broke loose.
The grid floated to the surface and was thought to have been destroyed by
passing shipping. Despite this early engineering failure, because of the
potential for generating biomass for biofuel, Wilcox was able to secure a
further 2 billion $US funding from the then American Gas Association to
continue the research. In a three phase programme Wilcox envisaged a
marine farm covering 40,000 ha of open ocean producing valuable foods,
liquid and gaseous fuels, lubricants, waxes, plastics, pharmaceuticals, and
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fertilisers as its principal products. A further two attempts with grid-style farms
followed, the first being much smaller at 35 m a side, was moored in 47 m of
water, but was lost when a float failed causing the farm to sink. A second farm
was installed in 1975 was destroyed by a storm, but in each case a limited
amount of information was gathered on plant growth and performance before
the farms were lost. Important lessons had been learnt regarding the
necessity to avoid contact between kelp plants and the solid components of
the farms, a difficult proposition given the differential buoyancy of the plants
and the structures to which they were attached. Rapid vertical movements of
offshore structures can occur at exposed sites, causing the underlying farm to
„overtake‟ the buoyant plants which subsequently become wrapped around
the underlying cables. Similarly contact with any part of the hard substrate,
particularly once it had been colonised by sharp edged encrusting organisms,
caused chaffing and loss of biomass.
It was in 1981 that a subsequent near shore grid farm at Goleta, California,
funded by General Electric finally survived long enough to allow the required
growth data to be collected. The farm consisted of two 0.2 ha plots on which
700 plants were attached to grids of rope and chain anchored by concrete
blocks. The plants were arranged in three different densities, the experimental
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plot was fertilised with nutrient enriched seawater sprayed from a small boat
while a control plot remained unsprayed. Yield data was obtained by hand-
harvesting plants every three months and weighing the biomass produced.
The results from these short term experiments indicated that growth rates on
large scale oceanic farms could be at least equivalent to that on coastal kelp
beds. Growth rates of adult transplants ranged from 5.4 – 7.2 % per day,
within the normal range for Macrocytis in coastal waters.
The use of seaweeds for medicines and foods dates back at least 1,500 years
and over 100 species are used for food, in medicine, or as fertiliser and in the
processing of phycolloids and chemicals (Tseng, 1987). China is the world‟s
largest producer of cultivated seaweed. Laminaria japonica known as haidai
or „sea-strap‟ is the most important species economically enjoying popularity
as a food article and a drug; it is not native to China, having been introduced
from Japan originally. It was the first seaweed to be subjected to the entire
process of seeding, tending and planting out and to have the status of a
marine plant crop (Tseng, 1987). Now its biomass production, per unit area in
a large scale operation, is larger than any other seaweed.
In the 1940s, Japanese experts associated with Chinese experts began kelp
farming experiments in Shandong Province. Large-scale kelp farming was not
established until the early 1950s, when the three key problems that hindered it
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before were resolved: 1) fertilizing the sea, greatly expanding the farming
area; 2) breeding summer instead of autumn seedlings, prolonging the growth
period; and 3) the southward introduction of commercial cultivation beyond its
natural distribution on the China coast to Liaoning, Shandong, Jiangsu,
Zhejiang, and Fujian provinces (FAO, 2007). In addition to the countries
mentioned above, Russia is now producing L. japonica in its far eastern
region. The culture methods of this seaweed are reviewed in detail by the
FAO (2007) in their Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme CASIP.
In the commercial cultivation of haidai in China there are two phases, the
indoor cultivation of the sporelings and the field cultivation of the large
sporophytes. In the summer the seeding process takes place in shallow tanks
where the mature plants shed their spores. The swimming zoospores are
allowed to settle on spore-collectors, which are frames carrying the seeding
strings. The string can be made of natural or synthetic fibres. The adult kelp
blades are removed once a given spore density as been achieved
(approximately 10 spores per x 100 field of view under the microscope). The
seeded strings are arranged in shallow tanks containing filtered seawater
enriched with nitrogen, phosphate and iron and kept between 8-10oC in a
specially cooled greenhouse. There is a partial exchange (20%) of the
refrigerated seawater through the tanks every day. In modern practice the
light intensity and temperature is carefully controlled by shading the
greenhouse roof and the input of nitrogen, phosphate and iron has been
precisely defined. The zoospores germinate to gametophytes and resultant
zygotes germinate to sporelings in around 12 days (see section 4 for lifecycle
details and terminology). In the autumn, when the sporelings are 1- 2cm high
and the ambient seawater temperature has fallen below 20oC the strings are
transferred to the field. The sporeling frames are hung from floating rafts until
the plants are 10 -15cm (1 – 1.5 months) and then they are transplanted to
the final growing position on lines of 8 mm diameter synthetic ropes. In North
China the growth period is 6 -7 months for transplanted kelps to reach lengths
of 3-6 m.
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In Sangou Bay, in the Yellow Sea, the kelp harvest is from April to the end of
July, as after this the water temperature is unfavourably warm the kelps start
to degrade. During the harvest teams of workers, starting at first light, leave
for the culture areas, which in Sangou Bay stretch for more than 10 km out to
sea. A lead vessel pulls up to eleven barges, each barge is manned by two
workers. In the bottom of the barge there is a loose net; 2-3 t of cultivated
seaweeds are stripped from the culture lines and piled in each barge before
the motorised vessel tows them to port where the harvest is lifted from the
barge by the net using the cranes along the quay. The seaweed is transported
by tractor to the processing units (Figs 2.2 a-d).
The development of the „floating raft‟ cultivation method was considered key
to the success of the industry, but now the most popular method in the Yellow
Seas is to suspend the seaweeds between the buoyed up parallel long lines
(Fig 2.2e), known as the horizontal raft method. The one-dragon method (a
continuous culture string attached at intervals to the horizontal top rope) is
used where the currents are stronger (H. Liu, YSFRI, pers. comm.). In the
floating raft method the strings bearing the seaweeds are 70 – 140cm apart
depending on the conditions and the total number of kelp plants in one
hectare on a modern commercial farm averages 1,500,000 – 3,000,000.
Formerly the seaweed cultures were fertilised in the field cultivation phase by
means of porous clay bottles filled with ammonium sulphate hung at intervals
from the rafts, the porosity of the earthenware effectively controlling the
diffusion of the fertiliser. However later studies showed that L. japonica can
absorb nutrients very quickly and then hold them in large quantities in the
vacuoles of its cells and grow normally for several days without further
fertilisation. So the labour intensive clay-bottle method was replaced by
spraying a fertiliser solution from a boat at intervals (Tseng, 1987). Although,
fertiliser is still provided during the first month after seedlings are put out to
sea, this practice has ceased for on growing period now in favour of
integrated aquaculture methods where fish, shellfish and seaweeds are
cultured in the same water body and the nutrients excreted by the animals
serves to fertilise the plants (H. Liu, YSFRI, pers.comm.).
24
Production in the Yellow Sea region according to Tseng (1987) was 15 t dry
ha -1. More recently figures of 25 t dry (163 wet weight) ha -1 have been
reported (H. Liu pers.comm. citing China Fish Annals, 2003). However in an
experiment with very dense planting and harvesting in separate lots in
different periods a production as high as 60 t ha-1 dry kelp has been reported,
although production costs were high and the quality of the material produced
was poor (Tseng, 1987).
In his account Tseng (1987) also mentioned inverting culture ropes to even
out productivity in the vertical-line cultivation methods, as seaweeds at the top
grow better than at the bottom of the ropes, although this is no longer
practiced as the culture ropes are slung between the horizontal long lines and
are no longer vertical drops.
In his account Tseng (1987) also considered that haidai, in the future, may
even serve as a source of energy. He commented that to lower the costs of
production a series of problems had to be solved as the eventual rise in the
standard of living in China would mean that labour costs would increase. He
suggested increased mechanisation to lower labour costs, and highlighted
that the intensive planting, required for energy production, may increase
disease problems and that drying was another labour intensive part of the
production process. Outdoor drying is still widely practiced nowadays, since
the energy cost of this processing method is minimal, while more
sophisticated processing methods are also deployed to produce high-valued
haidai products, such as various shaped fast-food haidai, kombu, seaweed
powder, seaweed tablets, other health foods and seaweed soaps etcetera.
Table 2.3 Main cultivated species in China (tonnage and area) 2003. (F.
Wang, YSFRI, pers. comm.)
Seaweed Laminaria Undaria Porphyra Gracilaria Total
Yield t 818,768 172.613 72,753 59,536 1,383,790
(dry)
Area Ha 35,859 7,047 28,427 4,323 80,699
Seedlings 85 x 109 2.8 x 109
26
27
2.4 Tank culture of seaweeds for biomass
The large amounts of sea water required for tank or enclosed Gracilaria
culture are not related to a need for nutrients but to the fact that the cultures
become carbon dioxide-limited under low flow rates. As with the nutrients, it
28
was determined that pulses of aeration (15 mins hr-1 for 6 hours a day) were
as beneficial as constant aeration and allowed significant energy saving.
Aeration allows the redistribution of the seaweeds to maximise photosynthetic
efficiency through absorbance of light and to minimise self-shading, it also
increases nutrient uptake by reducing diffusion boundary layers and increases
the availability of metabolic gases. Aeration systems can also be used to
dislodge and flush out competing algal spores, thereby reducing the epiphyte
problem.
Hanisak (1987) also highlights the difference between growth rates and yield
in cultivation systems and the relationship of these factors with the density of
the culture. For G. tikvahiae the specific growth rate is negatively correlated
with density while the response of yield to density is a bell-shaped curve. This
is most likely explained by the fact that at low densities the cultures are not
light or nutrient limited, but as density increases yield begins to plateau as
nutrients are utilised and ultimately density increases until the detrimental
effects of self-shading mean that the net production is zero. Fortunately, it is
easy to manage culture density and once the optimal density range is
determined, any incremental growth above optimum should be harvested as
frequently as possible. In G. tikvahiae cultures in Florida the practice was to
stock cultures at 2 kg wet weight m-2, to maintain this density the cultures
were harvested every week in summer and every two weeks in winter.
29
The percentage ammonium is a function of the residence time in the digester
(Hanisak, 1987).
During the initial screening of seaweeds for rapid growth rate (Hanisak, 1987)
species of the green algal genera Entermorphora and Ulva were also grown.
These species had higher initial yields than Gracilaria but the yields were not
sustainable for significant periods as the species would become reproductive
and shed spores. As each cell in the thallus can become reproductive, it was
not unusual for an entire culture to sporulate and be lost overnight, leaving
only empty cells. A search was initiated for sterile strains, as Ulva in particular
lends itself to digestion with high methane yields because of its favourable
carbohydrate and protein content.
30
3. BIOCONVERSION OF SEAWEEDS
Macroalgae have been tested for their suitability to conversion methods other
than anaerobic digestion. These methods include thermal methods such as:
Combustion: the burning of biomass which is oxidised and produces heat.
Combustion of air-dried macroalgae was originally carried out in pits from
which a thick ash was recovered. Once cooled and solidified this
constituted soda or kelp and was used in the glass industry, for iodine and
numerous other useful products. Combustion processes tend to be
uneconomic because of the high temperature required.
31
Gasification: an endothermic process where biomass is transformed inside
a reactor to simple gases such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen but a
process best suited to substrates which have low water content.
Pyrolysis-carbonisation: the thermal decomposition of organic materials in
an oxygen free or oxygen deficient environment to produce charcoal, gas
and pyroligneous liquor. Since Stanford first discovered (1862) that the dry
distillation of seaweeds produced an oily substance, many compounds
have been extracted by like processes. In 1919-1920, in the US,
compounds including oil, creosote, pitch, ammonia, char, phenols, acids,
amines, hydrocarbons, and alcohols were being produced from the
harvested Macrocystis. Tupholme (1926) (cited in Morand, 1991) was
commissioned by the British Fuel Research Board to investigate the
carbonisation of seaweeds in an attempt to provide employment in rural
areas. The pyrolysis of air-dried Laminaria species at 600oC produced
hydrocarbons, tar, mixed liquor and ammonium sulphate. However the
pyrolysis of seaweeds suffers a series of problems affecting its economics,
these include the high water content of the seaweeds, costs associated
with bulk handling and transport and the difficulty of separating the
complex mixtures of chemicals.
Hydroliquifaction: the transformation of biomass to liquid fuels using high
temperature and pressure.
3.2 Methanisation
Morand et al. (1991) and Chynoweth et al. (1987) summarise the results of
seaweed methanisation by numerous research workers. This research has
included the effect of several variables on AD including separation of the juice
and non-juice fractions, temperature, inoculum, nutrients, freshwater versus
seawater dilution and non-dilution. Later the research focused on advanced
digester designs, process optimisation and kinetics. In general the brown
algae are more easily degraded than the green algae, and the green are more
easily degraded than the red. There are exceptions, such as the brown algae
Sargassum for which methanogenesis is inhibited, probably by the presence
32
of phenolic compounds or the oxygen from undamaged pneumatocysts.
Because at least two very distinct microbial consortia are involved in AD,
some investigators have proposed separating these organisms into two
separate phases. Whether methane production is performed within combined
or separate phases, the process is strictly anaerobic and must be performed
in the absence of air (Chynoweth et al., 1987). The non-methanogenic acid
producing bacteria are relatively robust and fast-growing organisms, the
methanogens are by contrast fastidious and slow growing. The complexity of
the numerous bacterial species involved has prevented identification of all of
these organisms.
3.2.1 Pre-treatment
3.2.3 Toxicity
34
3.2.4 Salt
3.2.5 Inoculum:
Some authors (as reviewed by Morand et al., 1991) report than a marine
inoculum has no greater final effect than one from domestic sewage sludge,
although the marine inoculum caused the process to start faster. Others
observed that some marine bacteria are able to digest specific phycocolloids
which accelerated and increased biogas production when added to the
digester with the inoculum. The use of marine sediments from an area of
decaying seaweeds was reported to give a fast start to the digestion process.
3.2.6 Temperature
Little or no justification for the use of thermophillic bacteria has been reported
for digestion of seaweeds. Salt appears to inhibit the thermophillic process,
with only a partial adaptation of thermophyllic bacteria (Chynoweth et al.,
1981). Several authors (as reviewed by Morand et al., 1991) state that a
constant temperature is required, for example low biogas production from
Cladophora in Senegal was attributed to a drop in temperature overnight.
The impact of modifying C/N/P ratios through mixing seaweed biomass with
other substrates, such as municipal sludge waste or manure has been
examined with mixed results. Some mixtures improved the process while
others proved negative, in a similar way co-digestion of mixed seaweed
species often proved difficult because of differences in the digestion speeds of
the algal species, metabolites released by one inhibiting methanisation in
another.
Early work also proved that the liquid and solid residues of the red algae
Gracilaria tikvahiae were an excellent source of nutrients for the cultivation of
the seaweed itself. Freeze dried methanisation residues were also tested as
fertilisers on terrestrial plants. Residues from the intertidal brown seaweed
Ascophyllum nodosum gave good results on lettuce plants, but Laminaria spp.
produced a negative effect. An original idea (reported in Morand et al., 1991)
for the use of Laminaria spp. methanisation residues was to improve the
mechanical qualities of peat blocks, increasing the strength after compression
and allowing the peat to be usable for seed growing.
Methanisation of Ulva sp. and Laminaria sp. in Japan: Japan has had a long
interest in the concept of seaweed biomass as biofuel. In 1982 the Japan
Ocean Industries association produced a report examining the feasibility of
marine biomass crops (Brinkhuis et al., 1987). Current research in Japan, as
reported by Matsui et al. (2006) is associated with the chronic problem with
„green tides‟, green seaweeds (mainly Ulva sp.) washing up on seashores and
rotting. This nuisance seaweed has historically been collected and incinerated
by local governments. Seaweeds have also recently been cultivated to
remediate local nutrient pollution in the sea and to protect fish habitats from
waves. The disposal of this seaweed, usually from the genus Laminaria, is
also a growing problem. One solution is to use this seaweed as feedstock for
38
anaerobic conversion to methane. The Tokyo Gas Company Ltd. has built a 1
t day-1 methane fermentation plant combined with a gas engine power
generator to convert the biogas produced into electricity. The company has
selected methane fermentation (AD), rather than gasification for example, as
the proper process to convert seaweeds to gas fuel because of the high
concentration of water (about 90%). This field test plant consists of four parts
(pre-treatment, fermentation, biogas storage and generation). In the pre-
treatment part, the seaweeds are passed through a cutter/separator, cleaned
of foreign objects, smashed and diluted with water to suppress the effect of
salt and to make an appropriate slurry. In the fermentation part, there are two
processes (pre-fermentation and methane fermentation) for higher efficiency.
The seaweed slurry is first treated by pre-fermented (acid production) in a 5
m3 tank for 2 to 3 days to increase the concentrations of organic acids. This
organic acid rich solution is then fermented for 15-25 days in a separate
methane fermentation tank (30 m3) which contains a porous matrix for
immobilizing bacterial cells. The biogas is refined (de-sulfured) and stored in a
gasholder (30 m3). The residue from the fermentation process is dried and
used as fertiliser. The biogas is then mixed with city gas and fed to a co-
generation system where a generator (10 kW) produces electricity and excess
heat from the engine is used to heat the fermentation tanks.
When using Laminaria sp. as a test material for gas conversion it was
continuously supplied at a rate of 0.2 t to finally 1 t per day. The TS content
after adding the dilution water was 1 to 5%. Retention time of the pre-
fermentation was 2 to 3 days. The temperature was controlled at 25-35 °C.
Total concentration of produced organic acid (mainly acetic, lactic, and
butyric) was 1000 to 5000 ppm. In the case of the methane fermentation,
retention time was 15 to 25 days and temperature was controlled at 55 °C.
The concentration of ammonium ion was low (under 150 ppm), higher levels
can prevent methane fermentation. Biogas was produced continuously, of a
composition of 60 % methane and 40 % carbon dioxide, it also contained
several thousands ppm hydrogen sulphide which was removed by iron oxide
in this plant. Results of tests at varying pH showed the optimum for
39
maximising was over pH 7.5. One t of seaweed yielded 22 m3 methane gas,
produced continuously for over 150 days.
The Ulva sp. collected on seashore was also tested. These seaweeds
contained sand which did not affect fermentation directly but does decrease
the available volume of the tanks. Therefore they were washed with water and
any foreign bodies removed before they were used for fermentation tests.
Ulva was supplied to the digesters at 0.6 t per day (TS=3%) and the
conditions of the fermentation were same as for the Laminaria sp. Organic
acid was produced in the pre-fermentation tank at a concentration of 1000 to
3000 ppm, and then fed to the methane fermentation tank. The ammonium
ion concentration was about 500 ppm, and did not affect the methane
fermentation. The composition of the biogas was again 60 % methane and 40
% carbon dioxide, and the yield was 17 m3 t-1 of seaweed, lower than the yield
of the Laminaria sp. It was assumed that the Ulva sp. had more components
not decomposed easily by bacteria. The biogas was continuously produced
for over 70 days and the yield of methane gas was stable.
Brown seaweeds contain two main storage sugars, mannitol and laminaran,
which can be relatively easily extracted from milled seaweed. The Norwegian
researchers (Moen et al., 1997) showed that these are the best substrates in
seaweeds for the production of bio-ethanol. They are also both waste by-
products of the alginate extraction industry. Initial attempts using microbes for
converting these sugars into bioethanol have shown promising results (Horn
et al. 2000a, 2000b). Bioconversion of these sugars into ethanol can be made
possible by either (i) employing a two-step process using two different
microorganisms, each optimised for maximum ethanol yield from each sugar
substrate; or (ii) using a single-step process with one organism that can utilise
both substrates to yield maximal ethanol yields. This possibility was only
recently shown to hold promise by the same Norwegian research group who,
for the first time, demonstrated that both sugars could be converted into
41
ethanol, and that this was possible with the use of one single organism, the
yeast strain Pichia angophorea (Horn et al., 2000). Although ethanol was
produced at reduced yields, the demonstration of this bioconversion is
significant. Interestingly, in another report by the same authors the bacterium
Zymobacter palmae, isolated from palm sap, was shown to have
ethanologenic properties in its capacity to ferment seaweed-derived mannitol
to ethanol. Phylogenetic studies later classified this bacterium to belong to the
Halomonas genus, of which SAMS‟ has a collection of the marine
representatives of these species in its strain library. Both of the microbes used
in these Norwegian studies were of terrestrial origin (the yeast P. angophorae
and the bacterium Zymobacter palmae) and, as expected, were found to
produce less than sub-optimal conversion rates and yields of bio-ethanol. This
is possibly attributable to the incompatability of these terrestrial origin
microbes to degrade a marine-based biomass. The relatively high
concentrations of salts present in seaweed biomass limiting the conversion of
this feedstock to biofuel.
43
4. BIOMASS AVAILABILITY
The seaweed resources of the UK and in particular Scotland are some of the
most extensively and intensively surveyed in the world. The shortages of raw
materials caused by the Second World War prompted an investigation of
Britain‟s seaweed resources in the 1940‟s and 50‟s. A survey of the entire
coast of Britain showed that the majority of kelps in commercially harvestable
densities are found in Scotland (Chapman, 1948). Subsequently, surveys of
the coast of Scotland were conducted by the now defunct Scottish Seaweed
Research Association.
44
4.1.1. Subtidal Seaweeds
Walker found that the dominant species in the subtidal was L. hyperborea.
Species found in lower abundances included L. digitata in the shallower
habitats, giving way to L. saccharina and Saccorhiza polyschides in deeper
habitats. The average density of seaweed was 3.7 kg m -2. There was a strong
relationship between depth and density of seaweeds with higher densities in
shallow water, 6 kg m-2 at 1 m, dropping down to 3 kg m-2 at 5 m and the
lowest densities in deep water, 1.2 kg m-2 at 10 m. A later, in-depth
exploration of the effect of depth on biomass and growth of L. hyperborea can
be found in Kain (1977).
The validity of using the results from Walker‟s surveys to assess the current
standing biomass of seaweeds depends on whether the techniques used
were accurate and whether the abundance and distribution of seaweeds has
45
changed in the last fifty years. More recent surveys of seaweed biomass
(Jupp and Drew, 1974; Kain, 1977) offer a way of assessing the first of these
criteria. One of the main criticisms of using a grab to assess biomass is that it
only collects a sub-sample of the biomass leaving behind many whole
seaweeds and parts of plants. Using SCUBA to hand collect seaweeds from a
known quadrat ensures that all of the biomass is surveyed and predictably,
this method always give a higher estimate of standing stock than using a
grab. Studies that have used SCUBA to sample L. hyperborea by hand have
found densities of 20 kg m-2 in 3 m of water in western Scotland (Jupp and
Drew, 1974) and 10-20 kg m-2 at 5 m depth around the Isle of Man and the
Outer Hebrides (Kain, 1977). These results are similar to those from other
countries, for example Sjøtun et al. (2004) found that in Norway at 3-5 m the
standing stock of L. hyperborea was between 6-16 kg m-2. These results are
about 3-5 times the density found in Walker‟s original surveys. Extrapolating
these estimates to the whole coast of Scotland would increase the total
sublitoral biomass from Walker‟s estimate to 30-50 million t. However, it has
been argued by Kain and Holt (1998) that while Walker‟s estimates are almost
definitely an underestimate of total seaweed biomass they provide a good
estimate of the harvestable biomass as it approximates the yields that would
be obtained using conventional seaweed harvesting technology which leaves
behind smaller plant and parts of mature plants (Christie, 1998).
47
Table 4.1. Standing crop of kelp at localities in Scotland sorted by density of
kelp per hectare. Data recalculated from Walker (1947).
Standing crop of Area Length of Density
Locality kelps (tons) (hectares) coast (km) (tons/hectare)
Orkney 1088400 22663 805 48
W. Kintyre and Gigha 181400 4452 80 41
Outer Hebrides 634900 16593 137 38
Crail 19954 526 11 38
Skye 272100 7285 354 37
E. Kintyre 36280 1052 35 34
Loch Eriboll 18140 526 21 34
Tiree and Coll 273914 8094 93 34
Dunbar 45350 1376 18 33
Islay 45350 1619 18 28
Luce Bay 18140 648 6 28
Shetland 553270 22663 1127 24
Girvan 39908 1700 34 23
Colonsay 18140 809 10 22
Mull 18140 931 24 19
Arran 50792 2752 77 18
Helmsdale 19954 1174 16 17
Tarbat Ness 9070 648 13 14
Enard Bay - Lochlash 110654 9713 257 11
Fraserburgh 54420 7285 97 7
48
seaweed in Scotland, Laminaria hyperborea, is from Norway. Norway
currently harvests between 130 000-180 000 t of L. hyperborea a year, it is
estimated the standing stock is more than 10 million t (Jensen, 1998). The
harvest is highly regulated and is sourced from four geographical regions.
Each of these regions is further divided into five areas that are harvested on a
five year cycle (before 1992 this was a four year cycle) (Briand, 1998).
Between 6-17% of each of these sub-areas is harvested every five years. The
trawl harvesting methods used clears the entire adult canopy of L.
hyperborea, but leaves behind a high density of smaller sub-canopy plants
from several age classes (Christie et al., 1998). Growth of these understorey
plants is quickly stimulated by the increased light resulting from removal of the
canopy. The high density of the understorey plants shades the substratum
and effectively inhibits the recruitment of other species of algae. The mixed
age classes in the understorey means that the recovery of the kelp bed is not
reliant on one year‟s recruitment. Thus the recovery of the kelp bed is not
sensitive to the time of year that the harvest takes place. These two factors,
the high density and mixed age class of understorey plants, combine to make
L. hyperborea kelp forests very stable and highly resistant to disturbances
such as intensive harvesting.
The available data indicate that L. hyperborea forests are generally robust to
disturbance by harvesting on a five year cycle. However, data on the effects
on the wider kelp community, the sensitivity of different locations to
harvesting, and data set in a Scottish context are poor or lacking. Norway is
estimated to have a similar standing stock of kelp to Scotland and to
sustainably harvest 130,000-180,000 t per year.
50
51
4.3 Culture
444,295 107,386
494,145
621,170
China
Philipines
866,383
Indonesia
Korea, Republic of
Japan
1,239,881 6,613,475 Korea, Dem. Rep.
Other
Fig. 4.3 World seaweed aquaculture. The proportion of the total volume of
seaweeds produced by the six seaweed growing countries (data are given as
tonnes). Source: fishstat, (FAO 2006).
53
productive systems known. In China for example Laminaria japonica is
regularly cultivated at 15 kg m-2 yr-1 (wwt) and at up to 60 kg m-2 yr-1 (wwt). In
the UK seaweeds have never been cultivated to the extent of that in China but
data from experimental farms can be extrapolated for comparison. In Ireland
hybrids of Alaria spp. have produced up to 8 kg m-2 yr-1 (wwt) (S. Kraan, pers.
comm.) and Alaria esculenta was cultivated in the 1980‟s at up to 5.6 kg m-2
yr-1 (wwt) (calculated from Kain and Dawes 1987). At the Scottish Association
of Marine Science several species have recently been grown in experimental
plots near fish farms to take advantage of the dissolved nutrients (Sanderson,
2006; Dworjanyn, unpublished data). They found that the red algae Palmaria
palmata can be cultivated at (at < than 1 kg m-2 yr-1(wwt)) and that the long
lived kelp L. hyperborea achieved productivity of just over 2 kg m-2 yr-1(wwt), a
value similar to the estimates for harvested wild L. hyperborea above. In
comparison opportunistic species such as L. saccharina was grown at 10 kg
m-2 yr-1 (wwt) and the annual kelp S. polyschides was grown at up to 17 kg m-
2
yr-1 (wwt) (Sanderson 2006, Dworjanyn unpublished data).
All of the potential species that would be cultured in the UK for biomass are
kelps and have very similar life histories and thus methods to cultivate them
are almost directly interchangeable. They have a life cycle called an
„alternation of generations‟ where the large macroscopic plants (sporophytes)
we know as „kelp‟ release spores that grow into microscopic plants
(gametophytes). These microscopic filamentous plants are either male or
female and produce eggs or sperm that when fertilised grow into another
large kelp plant. Thus the kelp alternates between large macroscopic (diploid)
plants and microscopic (haploid) filaments. When culturing kelps the
55
microscopic phase takes place in the laboratory and the macroscopic kelp
stage is cultured in the field.
The methods used for cultivating kelps are all variations on those used in
China and other Asian countries to produce many millions of tons of kelp
every year. Sporophytes can be collected from the field or cultivated. For wild
sporophytes, specific times for maturation vary between species and between
geographical areas (eg Kain 1989). However, in general they become
sexually mature after the summer growth has slowed. Fertile kelps are easily
identified as groups patches of sori (cells containing spores) are visible as
raised areas on the kelp blades (thallus). Obtaining enough spores should
never present a problem as spores are very small (6-8 µm long), and the sori
each containing 32 or more spores are packed very tightly on the surface of
the thallus. As many as 50 million spores are produced per square centimetre
of thallus (Kain 1975). The fertile sections of kelp are first cleaned, by wiping
the surface of the plants and/or applying antibiotic solution. The cleaned damp
seaweeds are placed a fridge for 24h or more after which they spontaneously
release spores on immersion in seawater. The spores are settled onto a
substrate, usually string wound onto a spool or frame, onto which they attach
within 24h and germinate into gametophytes. These microscopic filamentous
plants when kept under the specific light and temperature conditions release
eggs and sperm that after approximately six days results in the sporophytes.
The sporophytes re-attach to the substratum provided and are allowed to
grow for a few weeks to months in the laboratory until they are between 0.5 –
1 cm in length and are ready to be transplanted to the field.
56
where specific lines need to be crossed or where a particular line needs to be
produced in large numbers.
In the field the sporophytes are grown using variations of the same theme. In
general they are attached to floating structure, usually longlines that are
anchored to the sea floor and kept on the surface using buoys. The
sporophytes are either grown on these horizontal surface longlines or in
clearer water grown on weighted vertical lines (called droppers) attached to
the longlines at regular intervals. The sporophytes are either a) allowed to
grow in the field on the original strings they were settled on in the laboratory
until they are 10-15 cm and then individual plants are inserted into the ply of
the longlines or droppers, b) short lengths of string under 10 cm in length
containing many sporophytes taken directly from the laboratory are inserted
into the lay of the droppers or longlines or c) when seeded at low densities the
string on which they were settled can be directly wrapped around longlines
and allowed to grow.
58
5. FEASIBILITY STUDY
5.1 Introduction
59
which reduces the particle size to less than 12 mm. A conveyor belt then
carries the shredded waste to the conditioning tank where it is mixed with
some previously digested liquid to produce a pumpable material.This „soup‟ is
pumped through macerators to further reduce the particle size before it is fed
into the 900 m3 digester at regular intervals. As the resultant digestate could
potentially contain microbial pathogens originating from animal by-products,
the digested material is pasteurised to 70oC before storage or leaving the
plant (Figs 5.1, 5.2). The digestate is separated through a rotating drum filter
to produce liquid and solid fractions. The liquor is spread on local agricultural
land using a conventional slurry-spreader, while the solid digestate will be
used as a soil conditioner or as in-fill for landscaping.
60
61
The biogas is used to power the on-site CHP engine which at 85% efficiency
delivers 32% of its energy as electricity at a constant output of 200kW e, and
53% as heat, therefore 330kW th. The electrical output of 200kW is estimated
to be sufficient to power 80 homes. The CHP unit runs off biogas directly, the
biogas containing 60% methane, 40% carbon dioxide, and some trace
elements such as hydrogen sulphide.
A proportion of the heat is used on-site to heat the digester and pasteurisation
tank. The biogas is also used to mix the digester contents by bubbling it up
through the tanks. As the AD is by definition a sealed unit, and with a few
simple precautions to minimise smells from the deliveries, the level of odour is
low, and it is perfectly acceptable to situate this type of process alongside
manufacturing businesses in a small industrial estate, for example. The
collection, handling and running of the AD plant has resulted in the creation of
3 new jobs in Greenfinch‟s growing workforce.
62
5.2.2 The Western Isles Council, Anaerobic Digester / Municipal Waste
Treatment Centre, Isle of Lewis
Remote and sparsely populated rural areas of mainland Scotland and the
Scottish islands share some of the challenges of both energy supply and
waste management. The Western Isles provide a good example; while around
one half of the islands‟ 28,000 population is concentrated in and around
Stornoway on the Isle of Lewis, the remainder are spread over 3,000 sq km of
rugged and windswept terrain, on a group of islands stretching over 230 km
from end to end. The mainland of Scotland is 55 km away at its closest point.
However, although the EU Landfill Directive and the Scottish recycling targets
apply equally here as they do throughout the rest of Scotland, the logistics of
waste collection, recycling, treatment and disposal are relatively more difficult.
Earth Tech UK, in conjunction with its technology partners Linde, a Germany
company specialising in AD and HotRot, a Norfolk based company using New
Zealand technology, have come together and developed a £9.8 million waste
treatment facility. The project was managed from inception to delivery by
Uisdean Fraser, now a Director with Synergie Scotland in Inverness.
64
Fig 5.3 Process flow diagram for the biological treatment process (Courtesy of
Uisdean Fraser, Synergie Scotland)
65
5.2.3 The Meikle Laught, Ayrshire, on-farm cow slurry biodigester
The 110 Meikle Laught cows produce around 10t of slurry (approximately 6%
dry matter content) per day. In the summer months when the cows graze on
pasture the slurry is only collected during the morning and evening hours
when they are in the dairy; in the winter however the cows are indoors all the
time, housed over slatted flooring, beneath which the slurry collects in tanks
before it is pumped to the holding tank (800 m3). Therefore, prior to the
installation of the AD, there was only storage for around 80 days before it
became necessary, regardless of the weather and soil conditions at the time,
to spread the raw slurry on the land.
66
Now however, the slurry is pumped as required from the storage tank to the
80 m3 feeder tank, and then into the 200 m3 digester. The digester is fed,
mixed, heated and the gas collected in an entirely automated and computer
controlled system housed in a cabin between the feeder and digester tanks
(Fig 5. 4). The pump which feeds the digester has an in-line macerator which
reduces the slurry solids to 10 mm. The pump runs for approximately 1 minute
every hour, feeding approximately 0.5 t of slurry to the digester in each
pumping interval. The gas from the digester is collected in a gas holder which
is simply constructed from two fibreglass tanks, the upper one inverted and
floating on the lower, and buoyed up by the gas it contains (Fig 5.4e). The
digester contents are mixed by bubbling biogas from the gas holder back
through the digester, the digester is also fitted with a safety gas-vent and a
condensation trap. The biogas also powers a gas-boiler, which both heats the
digester and provides the hot water needs of the household and dairy. The
cabin also contains the gas boilers, pumps and heat exchangers which warm
the slurry in the digester to 37oC. The control panel illustrates the degree of
automation and the level of information provided for the operator by this
computer controlled system. The average total cost of the AD system
installation across the programme was £240,000 (J. Gasgoine, Greenfinch
pers.comm.).
The gas output (quality and volume) depends on the quality of the slurry going
into the system and this varies according to season, and the fodder the cows
are receiving. The slurry tanks also receive the washing water from the dairy
and certain percentage of rain water as the feed tank and slurry store are
open to the elements (Fig 5.4). The slurry has a total solid (TS) content
typically around 6% (the figure achieved after a sample is dried to a constant
dry weight at approximately 100oC). On this basis a 250 m3 slurry digester,
receiving 10 t of slurry every 24hrs and operating at 39oC would be expected
to deliver in the region of 8 m3 of biogas (at a total methane content of 60-
65%) per hour. The system is designed to have a 20 day retention time, to
maximise the reduction of the faecal-indicator bacteria in the digester. The
digestate is stored in a 1000 m3 capacity tank and can be spread by a
conventional slurry-spreader. The digestate, which is thinner than raw slurry,
67
is absorbed into the ground more rapidly. There is an additional benefit in that
the nutrients of the digestate are more readily plant-available than those in
raw slurry. The farmer can hence have an additional saving on the costs of
chemical fertilisers. Running on cow slurry alone, this scale of digester is not
generating sufficient quantities of biogas to produce electricity, and at present
powers only gas boilers for hot water supplies. Therefore there are electrical
energy costs associated with running this plant which functions primarily as a
waste disposal system.
68
69
5.3 Analysis
Data on methane yields from feedstocks are often described as the output of
methane in m3 kg-1 of VS where VS (volatile solids) are expressed as a
percentage of the TS (total solids), and the VS is the weight of organic matter
minus any inert matter in the sample (also termed the ash-free dry weight).
70
Table 5.2 Comparative data on methanisation of macroalgae
Species Source Available information Methane yield m3 kg-1
VS added
Laminaria Chynoweth et al., TS VS 0.30
saccharina 1987. (as % of wet (as %
(lab. scale) weight) of TS)
9.9 60.4
Macrocystis 12.6 60.2 0.43
pyrifera
Gracilaria Bird et al., 1990 0.28 – 0.40
tikvahiae (small lab. scale)
clones
L. digitata Morand et al., 30 m3 digester fed 1- 0.5 (close to theoretical
1991 (pilot scale) 1.5 t day-1, producing yield therefore some
29.8m3 methane over doubt over accuracy)
final 21 days
Following 3 examples as cited in Morand et al., 1991
L. Troiano et al., Digester volume 50l, 0.22 / 0.20
saccharina 1976; 37OC
Completely mixed
L. Asinari et al., Digester volume 2l, 0.25
saccharina 1981 ; 35OC
Completely mixed
L. Hanssen et al, Digester volume 8l, 0.23
saccharina 1987 37OC
Completely mixed
L. Matsui et al., TS 1-5% after addition 0.22 calculated from
saccharina 2007 (pilot of diluting water. 1 t an estimated 10% TS
scale) wet weight added day-1 pre –dilution, and value
to 30m3 methane of 22m3 CH4 t-1 wet
fermenter, 22m3 day-1 weight
over 150 days (15 – 25
day HRT)
71
5.3.2 Costs of seaweed culture
Currently the South Shropshire Biogas plant charges the local council for
every load of organic waste delivered. If the proposed seaweed fuelled AD
facility was to operate as a stand alone commercial enterprise, it would have
to purchase its feedstock from the growers and this cost should be factored
into the economic assessment.
While the data from a wide range of studies (Tables 5.1, 5.2) indicate the
methane yield from macroalgal feedstocks is relatively well established, the
costs of production of macroalgae from large scale cultures in a UK context
has not been evaluated. Table 5.3 gives a preliminary comparison of
terrestrial and marine feedstocks based on such figures that are available but
also assuming the costs of L. saccharina production on a commercial scale
would be similar to those for fodder beet.
72
Table 5.3 Comparative data on energy output from different feedstocks
compiled by Lucy Lewis, Greenfinch Ltd; Laminaria saccharina values derived
from Chynoweth et al. (1987), values in lightly shaded sections are estimates
and will vary with growing conditions. Values in the darkly shaded areas are
based on the unsupported assumption that the cost of L. saccharina
production* will be equivalent to that of the most expensive terrestrial crop
used in the comparison.
Fodder Laminaria
Maize Ryegrass Beet saccharina Units
Crop Yield 45 56 86 150 tonnes/ha/year
% Dry Matter 30 20 17 10 %DM
%Oven dried
matter (ODM) 95 88 90 75 %ODM
m3 CH4/tonne
Methane Yield 370 340 410 270 ODM
% Methane 55 55 55 60 %CH4
Cost of Crop
Production 720 800 1,000 1,000* £/ha/year
Tonnes
Tonnes ODM 12.8 9.9 13.2 11.3 ODM/ha/year
Methane
Production 4,745 3,351 5,423 3,038 m3 CH4/ha/year
Methane m3 CH4/tonne
Production 105 60 63 20 Crop
Biogas m3
Production 8,628 6,093 9,860 5,063 Biogas/ha/year
m3
Biogas Biogas/tonne
Production 192 109 114 34 Crop
Electrical Output 1.7 1.2 2.0 1.1 kWe/ha
Electrical Output 15,058 10,634 17,209 9,639 kWh/ha
Cost of Crop
Production 16 14 12 7 £/tonne
Cost of Crop
Production 56 81 76 89 £/tonne ODM
Cost of Methane
from Crops 15 24 18 33 pence/m3 CH4
Engine
Efficiency 85.0 85.0 85.0 85.0 %
Electrical
Efficiency 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 %
Thermal
Efficiancy 53.0 53.0 53.0 53.0 %
Average House
consumes 4000.0 4000.0 4000.0 4000.0 kWhr/yr
Number of
hectares/house 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.4
73
5.3.3 Nutrient availability for seaweed culture
74
Table 5.4 Percentage of salmon farm derived nitrogen (N) theoretically
removed by harvest L. saccharina assuming the production of 500 t salmon
results in the loss of 23 t of N to the receiving waters over a 2 year production
cycle. L. saccharina yields range from 40 – 260 t ha-1 and N values from range
1 – 3%. The shaded area indicates actual % N values measured for L.
saccharina during the course of the study. (Sanderson, 2006).
% N in harvested Laminaria saccharina plants (dry weight
and wet: dry
weight ratio 1:9)
Yield t ha-1
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
wet weight
40 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
60 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.7
100 1.0 1.4 1.9 2.4 2.9
140 1.4 2.0 2.7 3.4 4.1
180 1.7 2.6 3.5 4.3 5.2
220 2.1 3.2 4.3 5.3 6.4
260 2.5 3.8 5.0 6.3 7.5
In areas outwith the Scottish highland and islands it might be possible to link
in-shore seaweed cultivation to areas identified by the Scottish Government
as Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZs), where higher levels of nitrate rich runoff
from agricultural land reach receiving waters. In accordance with the
requirements of the European Commission's Nitrates Directive 91/676/EEC,
four areas of Scotland were designated as NVZs in 2002-03: Moray,
Aberdeenshire, Banff and Buchan; Strathmore and Fife; Lothian and Borders
and Lower Nithsdale (Scottish Government, 2007).
75
6. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
76
The forum would then be able to direct future research. However, care should
be taken to ensure research activities are not restrained by local political
activities. A strategic and long term view on sustainable and intelligent
exploitation of a natural resource should be formed by sector leaders, with
input from a public forum.
Some regard the seas as the last unexploited resource, however this is far
from the case as even a casual appraisal of any marine ecosystem report will
advise (RCEP, 2004b; Clover, 2004). The large scale culture of seaweeds
may prove to be a relatively environmentally inert practice, or even to be
beneficial in terms of the sequestering of carbon, providing habitat for fish,
increasing biodiversity and extracting nutrients of anthropogenic, agricultural
or aquacultural origin from the marine environment. There are hydrographic
considerations as to where such farms should be sited; an area of relatively
77
strong tidal exchange is desirable, bringing a constant supply of nutrients to
the plants. The farm should not impede water exchange to onshore areas.
The effect of the farmed seaweeds reducing the level of light penetration and
their competing with phytoplankton for nutrients should be considered.
The west coast of Scotland is the part of the UK most obviously suited to large
scale aquatic farming; its heavily indented coastline and relatively clean
waters mean that it is already home to 95% of the UK‟s aquaculture both by
value and volume. However, the creation of other large offshore infrastructure,
such as wind farms, and the continuing research effort into developing
offshore aquaculture methods (Buck and Buchholz, 2004) may allow for the
culture of large expanses of seaweeds, out of sight from the shore and of
those who might consider them aesthetically unpleasing.
The potential tonnages obtainable from each method (culture versus wild
harvest), within strict environmental boundaries, should be ascertained. Hard
data should be collected from trial farms and trial harvest plots in Scotland.
79
4. A full Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is required of the effect
of large scale seaweed aquaculture versus seaweed harvesting, based
on data collected in Scotland and drawing on the ecosystem data from
China (culture) and Norway (harvesting). The environmental impact of
collecting storm cast kelps from beaches should also be considered.
11. Biomass composition: seaweeds with high ash content have lower
volatile solids (VS) content. Methane production has been positively
correlated with mannitol content in Macrocystis pyrifera and further
research is required to understand the relationship between nutrient
supply and nutrient content of other species. Biomass composition
within species is also known to vary considerably depending on growth
and time of harvest; levels of light and the addition of fertilisers to
seaweeds in culture may also affect their biodegradability and methane
yields. There is a research requirement to explore ways of maximising
levels of storage polysaccharides (mannitol and laminarian) from
seaweeds cultivated in Scotland. It is necessary to monitor levels over
a season, across geographic locations and plant life history stage, to
correlate this with nutrient levels, time of harvest, harvest method and
handling techniques.
82
Identify potential biomass
Feed variation
Process variation
Pre-treatment
p
Bench-scale process
development
Conventional digester
Unconventional digester
Process scale up
Experimental test unit
Demonstration
13. Inoculum: The potential for enhancing gas production with an inoculum
containing marine bacteria should be investigated. It may be possible
83
to screen for and isolate bacteria that are better able to digest specific
phycocolloids and accelerate biogas production.
15. Elemental ratios: Nitrogen is the major nutrient, other than carbon
sources, that is needed for AD. Chynoweth (1987) found the
methanisation of Laminaria sp. was highest when the C/N ratios were
low. However this should be characterised and optimised for all
potential seaweed substrates.
16. Digester „Diets‟: The impact of modifying C/N/P ratios through mixing
seaweed biomass with other substrates, such as municipal sludge
waste or manure has been examined with mixed results, and should be
re-evalued for the seaweeds under consideration. The ability to mix
algae with other feedstocks and to understand the operation of
digesters under this varying load is important. The effect of digesting
mixed seaweed populations, such as those that might be acquired from
natural settlement on culture ropes should also be assessed. This in
essence leads the design of specific „diets‟ for a digester based on the
nutritional composition of the basic feedstock. Relatively small
additions of other substances (preferably wastes from another process,
e.g. glycerol a by-product of the production of biodiesel) could possibly
be used to great advantage in increasing methane yields. Similarly the
residues from the alginate extraction industry, rich in mannitol and
laminaran should be assessed as performance enhancers in modern
digesters. Additional feedstock enhancers could include fish and
84
shellfish wastes, particularly where seaweeds are produced in
integrated systems (see recommendation 25 below).
18. Use of the digestate: Early work proved that the liquid and solid
residues of the red algae Gracilaria tikvahiae were an excellent source
of nutrients for the cultivation of the seaweed itself. Further research is
required on the potential to add value to the digestate of species such
as L. saccharina. However where the digestate has been generated
from a mixed feedstock, particularly one containing animal or human
waste, then some forms of re-use will be prohibited.
The gut flora of seaweed-grazing sheep (from the Orkney Islands) is currently
being investigated for their ethanol fermentation capability, as part of the
SUPERGEN Marine Biomass project (J. Adams, Aberystwyth University, pers.
comm.).
85
6.3 Economic appraisal
Before marine energy crops can become commercially viable there has to be
a demonstrable market demand for the seaweeds as feedstock for AD plants
producing methane. Downstream of this there has to be a need for the
methane to power CHP engines to help meet local heat and electricity needs
or as transport fuels. In all of the examples in this report the AD plants are
running on feedstocks that are wastes, the disposal of which would have
incurred costs. This situation needs to change so that AD plants operate at
sufficient margins that they can afford to pay for their feedstocks. Further
increases in the price of fuels from non-renewable resources may affect this
change. A Renewable Obligation credit for energy supplied as heat, rather
than just as electricity would also help address the economic balance.
23. The seaweed supply and the AD side of the business should ideally
run as independent and stand alone businesses, the former enhancing
profit margins with higher value seaweed products. The cost of
installing the AD plant could be assessed accurately once the amount
of biomass to be treated daily has been determined.
24. There is a necessity to consider how both location and scale of the
planned digesters affects the economic viability. An AD facility, situated
close to the production areas (e.g in the Highlands and Islands) and
running solely on seaweed incurs the risk of a seasonal supply
(depending on the outcomes of point 7 above), and the possibility that
the digester is not productive for part of the year. The alternatives are
to transport in other digester feedstock, which could possibly seriously
erode the carbon benefits of the operation or, site the digester close to
other digestible feedstocks (likely to be outwith the Highlands and
Islands) and transport the seaweeds to the digester.
6.4 Priorities
7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors especially thank Ms Lucy Lewis, Mr Jamie Gasgoine and Mr
Michael Cheshire from Greenfinch Ltd for giving generously of their time.
Greenfinch Ltd. also provided MSK access to, and information on, the AD
facilities it operates in South Shropshire and Ayrshire, MSK thanks them for
their comments and discussions on the AD process. MSK is in debt to Prof.
Hui Liu of the Yellow Seas Fisheries Research Institute, Qingdao, China, for
hosting her visit to YSFRI and the Sangou Bay seaweed cultivation areas,
and for helpful discussion on seaweed cultivation. The authors also especially
thank the four anonymous referees whose comments improved this report.
90
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