ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

Wayne Tomasi, 5th edition

Introduction to Electronic Communications

Electricity began in 1837 when Samuel Finley Breese Morse invented the first workable telegraph. In 1894, Marchese Guglielmo Marconi successfully transmitted the first wireless radio signals through Earths atmosphere. In 1906, Lee DeForest invented the triode vacuum tube. Commercial radio broadcasting began in 1920 when radio station KDKA began broadcasting amplitude-modulated (AM) signals out of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 1931, Major Edwin Howard Armstrong patented frequency modulation (FM). Commercial broadcasting of monophonic FM began in 1935. The decibel (abbreviated dB) is a logarithmic unit that can be used to measure ratios of virtually anything. Zero dB-SPL is the threshold of hearing. The threshold of pain is approximately 120 dB-SPL. dB represents the ratio of the signal level at one point in a circuit to the signal level at another point in a circuit. A power loss is sometimes called attenuation. dBm is a unit of measurement used to indicate the ratio of a power level with respect to a fixed reference level. When power levels are given in watts and power gains are given as absolute values, the output power is determined by simply multiplying the input power times the power gain. Modulation is simply the process of changing one or more properties of the analog carrier in proportion with the information signal. Digital transmission is a true digital system where digital pulses are transferred between two or more points in a communications system. Digital radio is the transmittal of digitally modulated analog carriers between two or more points in a communications system. If the information is analog and the amplitude (V) of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, amplitude modulation (AM) is produced. If the frequency (f) is varied proportional to the information signal, frequency modulation (FM) is produced, and, if phase is varied proportional to the information signal, phase modulation (PM) is produced. If the information signal is digital and the amplitude (V) of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, a digitally modulated signal known as amplitude shift keying (ASK) is produced. If the frequency (f) is varied proportional to the information signal, frequency shift keying (FSK) is produced, and, if the phase is varied proportional to the information signal, phase shift keying (PSK) is produced. If both the amplitude and the phase are varied proportional to the information signal, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) results. ASK, FSK, PSK, and QAM are forms of digital modulation. The term channel is often used to refer to a specific band of frequencies allocated a particular service. Commercial FM broadcast band has been assigned the 88-MHz to 108MHz band. Extremely low frequencies. Extremely low frequencies (ELFs) are signals in the 30-Hz to 300-Hz range and include ac power distribution signals (60 Hz) and low-frequency telemetry signals. Voice frequencies. Voice frequencies (VFs) are signals in the 300-Hz to 3000-Hz range and include frequencies generally associated with human speech. Standard telephone channels have a 300-Hz to 3000-Hz bandwidth and are often called voice-frequency or voice-band channels. Very low frequencies. Very low frequencies (VLFs) are signals in the 3kHz to 30-kHz range, which include the upper end of the human hearing range. VLFs are used for some specialized government and military system, such as submarine communications. Low frequencies. Low frequencies (LFs) are signals in the 30-kHz to 300-kHz range and are used primarily for marine and aeronautical navigation. Medium frequencies. Medium frequencies (MFs) are signals in the 300kHz to 3-MHz range and are used primarily for commercial AM radio broadcasting (535 kHz to 1605 kHz). High frequencies. High frequencies (HFs) are signals in the 3-MHz to 30-MHz range and are often referred to as short waves. Most two-way radio communications use this range. Very high frequencies. Very high frequencies (VHFs) are signals in the 30-MHz to 300-MHz range and are used for mobile radio, marine and aeronautical communications, commercial FM broadcasting (88 MHz to 108 MHz), and commercial television broadcasting of channels 2 to 13 (54 MHz to 216 MHz). Ultrahigh frequencies. Ultrahigh frequencies (UHFs) are signals in the 300-MHz to 3-GHz range and are used by commercial television broadcasting of channels 14 to 83, land mobile communications services, cellular telephones, certain radar and navigation systems, and microwave and satellite radio system. Superhigh frequencies. Superhigh frequencies (SHFs) are signals in the 3-GHz to 30-GHz range and include the majority of the frequencies used for microwave and satellite radio communication systems. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) is an international agency in control of allocating frequencies and services within the overall frequency spectrum. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) assigns frequencies and communications services for free-space radio propagation. A standard voice-band channel occupies approximately a 3-kHz bandwidth and is used for transmission of voice-quality signals; commercial AM broadcast channels occupy approximately a 10-kHz frequency band, and 30MHz or more of bandwidth is required for microwave and satellite radio channels. The process of converting a frequency or band of frequencies to another location in the total frequency spectrum is called frequency translation. Frequency is simply the number of times a periodic motion, such as a sine wave of voltage or current, occurs in a given period of time. Each complete alternation of the waveform is called a cycle. The basic unit of frequency is hertz (Hz), and one hertz equals one cycle per second (1 Hz = 1 cps).

Extremely high frequencies. Extremely high frequencies (EHFs) are signals in the 30-GHz to 300-GHz range and are seldom used for radio communications except in very sophisticated, expensive, and specialized applications. Infrared. Infrared frequencies are signals in the 0.3-THz to 300-THz range and are not generally referred to as radio waves. Infrared refers to electromagnetic radiation generally associated with heat. Visible light. Visible light includes electromagnetic frequencies that fall within the visible range of humans (0.3 PHz to 3PHz). Light-wave communications is used with optical fiber systems. Wavelength is the length that one cycle of an electromagnetic wave occupies in space (i.e., the distance between similar points in a repetitive wave). Wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave and directly proportional to the velocity of propagation (the velocity of propagation of electromagnetic energy in free space is assumed to be the speed of light, 3 X 10^8 m/s). The emission classifications are identified by a three-symbol code containing a combination of letters and numbers. The first symbol is a letter that designates the type of modulation of the main carrier. The second symbol is a number that identifies the type of emission, and the third symbol is another letter that describes the type of information being transmitted. The bandwidth of an information signal is simply the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies contained in the information, and the bandwidth of a communications channel is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies that the channel will allow to pass through it Information theory is a highly theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth to propagate information through electronic communication systems. Information theory can be used to determine the information capacity of a data communications system. Information capacity is a measure of how much information can be propagated through a communications system and is a function of bandwidth and transmission line. The most basic digital symbol used to represent information is the binary digit or bit. In 1928, R. Hartley of Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a useful relationship among bandwidth, transmission time, and information capacity. In 1948, mathematician Claude E. Shannon (also of Bell Telephone Laboratories) published a paper in the Bell System Technical Journal relating the information capacity of a communications channel to bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio. The higher the signal-to-noise ratio, the better the performance and the higher the information capacity. Electrical noise is defined as any undesirable electrical energy that falls within the passband of the signal. Correlated noise exists only when a signal is present. Uncorrelated noise, on the other hand, is present all the time whether there is a signal or not. Uncorrelated noise is present regardless of whether there is a signal present or not. External noise is noise that is generated outside the device or circuit.

Atmospheric noise is naturally occurring electrical disturbances that originate within Earths atmosphere. Atmospheric noise is commonly called static noise. The source of most static electricity is naturally occurring electrical conditions, such as lightning. Consequently, at frequencies above 30 MHz or so, atmospheric noise relatively insignificant. Extraterrestrial noise consists of electrical signals that originate from outside Earths atmosphere and is therefore sometimes called deepspace noise. Solar noise is generated directly from the suns heat. There are two parts to solar noise: a quiet condition, when a relatively constant radiation intensity exists, and high intensity, sporadic disturbances caused by sunspot activity and solar flare-ups Cosmic noise sources are continuously distributed throughout the galaxies. Cosmic noise is often called black-body noise and is distributed fairly evenly throughout the sky. Man-made noise is simply noise that is produced by mankind. Man-made noise is impulsive in nature and contains a wide range of frequencies that are propagated through space in the same manner as radio waves. Man-made noise is most intense in the more densely populated metropolitan and industrial areas and is therefore sometimes called industrial noise. Internal noise is electrical interference generated within a device or circuit. Shot noise is caused by the random arrival of carriers (holes and electrons) at the output element of an electronic device, such as diode, field-effect transistor, or bipolar transistor. Shot noise is randomly varying and is superimposed onto any signal present. Shot noise is sometimes called transistor noise and is additive with thermal noise. Any modification to a stream of carriers as they pass from the input to the output of a device (such as from the emitter to the collector of a transistor) produces an irregular, random variation categorized as transit-time noise. Thermal noise is associated with the rapid and random movement of electrons within a conductor due to thermal agitation. Because this type of electron movement is totally random and in all directions, it is sometimes called random noise. Thermal noise is present communications systems. in all electronic components and

The ac component produced from thermal agitation has several names, including thermal noise, because it is temperature dependent; Brownian noise, after its discoverer; Johnson noise, after the man who related Brownian particle movement of electron movement; and white noise because the random movement is at all frequencies. Hence, thermal noise is the random motion of free electrons within a conductor caused by thermal agitation. To convert C to Kelvin, simply add 273; thus T = C + 273.

Correlated noise is a form of internal noise that is correlated (mutually related) to the signal and cannot be present in a circuit unless there is a signal. Correlated noise is produced by nonlinear amplification and includes harmonic and intermodulation distortion, both of which are forms of nonlinear distortion. Harmonic distortion occurs when unwanted harmonics of a signal are produced through nonlinear amplification (nonlinear mixing). The original signal is the first harmonic and is called the fundamental frequency. Amplitude distortion is another name for harmonic distortion. Total harmonic distortion (TDH) is the ratio of the quadratic sum of the rms values of all the higher harmonics to the rms value of the fundamental. Intermodulation distortion is the generation of unwanted sum and difference frequencies produced when two or more signals mix in a nonlinear device. The sum and difference frequencies are called cross products. Impulse noise is characterized by high-amplitude peaks of short duration in the total noise spectrum. As the name implies, impulse noise consists of sudden bursts of irregularly shaped pulses that generally last between a few microseconds and several milliseconds, depending on their amplitude and origin. Common sources of impulse noise include transients produced from electromechanical switches (such as relays and solenoids), electric motors, appliances, electric lights (especially fluorescent), power lines, automotive ignition system, poor-quality solder joints, and lightning. Signal-to-noise power ratio (S/N) is the ratio of the signal power level to the noise power level. Noise factor (F) and noise figure (NF) are figures of merit used to indicate how much the signal-to-noise ratio deteriorates as a signal passes through a circuit or series of circuits. Noise factor is simply a ratio of input signal-to-noise power ratio to output signal-to-noise power ratio.

Signal Analysis and Mixing

Signal analysis is the mathematical analysis of the frequency, bandwidth, and voltage level of a signal. Electrical signals are voltage- or current-time variations that can be represented by a series of sine or cosine waves. A description of a signal with respect to time is called a time-domain representation. A standard oscilloscope is a time-domain instrument. The display on the cathode ray tube (CRT) is an amplitude-versus-time representation of the signal and is commonly called a signal waveform. With an oscilloscope, the vertical deflection is proportional to the amplitude of the input signals, and horizontal deflection is a function of time (sweep rate). A description of a signal with respect to its frequency is called a frequency-domain representation. A spectrum analyzer is a frequencydomain instrument. With a spectrum analyzer, the horizontal axis represents frequency and the vertical axis amplitude. Any repetitive waveform that is comprised of more than one harmonically related sine or cosine wave is a nonsinusoidal, complex wave. To analyze a complex periodic wave, it is necessary to use a mathematical series developed in 1826 by the French physicist and mathematician Baron Jean Fourier. This series is appropriately called the Fourier series. Fourier analysis is a mathematical tool that allows us to move back and forth between the time and frequency domains. The Fourier series is used in signal analysis to represent the sinusoidal components of nonsinusoidal periodic waveforms. Any periodic waveform is comprised of an average dc component and a series of harmonically related sine or cosine waves. A harmonic is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. The fundamental frequency is the first harmonic and is equal to the frequency (repetition rate) of the waveform. The fundamental frequency is the minimum frequency necessary to represent a waveform. Wave symmetry describes the symmetry of a waveform in the time domain, that is, its relative position with respect to the horizontal (time) and vertical (amplitude) axes. If a periodic voltage waveform is symmetric about the vertical axis, it is said to have axes, or mirror, symmetry and is called an even function. If a periodic voltage waveform is symmetric about a line between the vertical axis and the negative horizontal axis and passing through the coordinate origin, it is said to have point, or skew, symmetry and is called an odd function. If a periodic voltage waveform is such that the waveform for the first half cycle repeats itself except with the opposite sign for the second half cycle, it is said to have half-wave symmetry. Frequency spectrum of a waveform consists of all the frequencies contained in the waveform and their respective amplitudes plotted in the frequency domain.

The bandwidth of a frequency spectrum is the range of frequencies contained in the spectrum. The bandwidth is calculated by subtracting the lowest frequency from the highest. The bandwidth of an information signal is simply the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies contained in the information, and the bandwidth of a communications channel is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies that the channel will allow to pass through it. When analyzing electronic communications circuits, it is often necessary to use a rectangular pulse. The duty cycle (DC) for the waveform is the ratio of the active time of the pulse to the period of the waveform. Electrical power is the rate at which energy is dissipated, delivered, or used and is a function of the square of the voltage or current. With the discrete Fourier transform, a time-domain signal is sampled at discrete times. The samples are fed into a computer where an algorithm computes the transform. In 1965 a new algorithm called the fast Fourier transform (FFT) was developed by Cooley and Tukey. With the FFT the computing time is proportional to n log 2n rather than n^2. We can consider a communications channel to be equivalent to an ideal linear-phase filter with a finite bandwidth. In a communications system, bandlimiting reduces the information capacity of the system, and, if excessive bandlimiting is imposed, a portion of the information signal can be removed from the composite waveform. Mixing is the process of combining two or more signals and is an essential process in electronic communications. Linear summing occurs when two or more signals combine in a linear device, such as a passive network or a small-signal amplifier. In radio communications, mixing almost always implies a nonlinear process. Nonlinear mixing occurs when two or more signals are combined in a nonlinear device such as a diode or large-signal amplifier. With nonlinear mixing, the input signals combine in a nonlinear fashion and produce additional frequency components. Integer multiples of a base frequency are called harmonics. Nonlinear amplification of a single frequency results in the generation of multiples or harmonics of the frequency. If the harmonics are undesired, it is called harmonic distortion. If the harmonics are desired, it is called frequency multiplication. A JFET is a special-case nonlinear device that has characteristics that are approximately those of a square-law device. The cross products are sum and the difference frequencies. If the cross products are undesired, it is called intermodulation distortion. If the cross products are desired, it is called modulation. Intermodulation distortion is the generation of any unwanted crossproduct frequency when two or more frequencies are mixed in a nonlinear device.

Oscillators, Phase-Locked Loops, and Frequency Synthesizers

The definition of oscillate is to fluctuate between two states or conditions. Therefore, to oscillate is to vibrate or change, and oscillating is the act of fluctuating from one state to another. An oscillator is a device that produces oscillations. An electrical oscillation is a repetitive change in a voltage or current waveform. If an oscillator is self-sustaining, the changes in the waveform are continuous and repetitive; they occur at a periodic rate. A self-sustaining oscillator is also called a free-running oscillator. Oscillators that are not self-sustaining require an external input signal or trigger to produce a change in the output waveform. Oscillators that are not self-sustaining are called triggered or one-shot oscillators. A feedback oscillator is an amplifier with a feedback loop. Free-running oscillators are feedback oscillators. A feedback oscillator generates an ac output signal of which a small portion is fed back to the input, where it is amplified. According to the Barkhausen criterion, for a feedback circuit to sustain oscillations, the net voltage gain around the feedback loop must be unity of greater, and the net phase shift around the loop must be a positive integer multiple of 360. There are four requirements for a feedback oscillator to work: amplification, positive feedback, frequency determination, and a source of electrical power. Amplification. An oscillator circuit must be include at least one active device and be capable of voltage amplification. Positive feedback. An oscillator circuit must have a complete path for the portion of the output signal to be return to the input. Regenerative feedback is called positive feedback, where positive simply means that its phase aids the oscillation process and does not necessarily indicate a positive (+) or negative (-) polarity. Degenerative feedback is called negative feedback and supplies a feedback signal that inhibits oscillations from occurring. Frequency-determining components. An oscillator must have frequency determining components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, or crystals to allow the frequency of operation to be set or change. Power source. An oscillator must have a source of electrical energy, such as dc power supply. The open loop voltage gain is the voltage gain of the amplifier with the feedback path open circuited. The close loop voltage gain is the over all voltage gain of the complete circuit with the feedback loop close and is always less than the open loop voltage gain. The feedback ratio is simply the transfer function of the feedback network. For a passive feedback network, the feedback ratio is always less than 1. The Wien-bridge oscillator is an untuned RC phase shift oscillator that uses both positive and negative feedback. It is a relatively stable, lowfrequency oscillator circuit that is easily tuned and commonly used in signal generators to produce frequencies between 5 Hz and 1 MHz.

The Wien-bridge oscillator is the circuit that Hewlett and Packard used in their original signal generator design. The lead-lag network and the resistive voltage divider make up a Wien bridge. When the bridge is balanced, the difference voltage equals zero. The ratio of the resistors in the voltage divider is 2:1, which sets the noninverting voltage gain of amplifier. To compensate for imbalances in the bridge and variations in component values due to heat, automatic gain control (AGC) is added to the circuit. LC Oscillators are oscillator circuit that utilized tuned LC circuits for the frequency-determining components. The radio-frequency choke (RFC) is a dc short. Hartley oscillators are used to tapped inductor, part of a resonant circuit to provide feedback. Colpitts Oscillator uses a capacitive voltage divider instead of a tapped inductor to provide feedback. Clapp Oscillator - A colpitts type oscillator using a series resonant tank circuit for improved stability Frequency stability is the ability of an oscillator to remain at a fixed frequency and is a primary importance in communication systems. Short-term stability is affected predominantly by fluctuations in dc operating voltages. Long Term stability is a function of component aging and changes in the ambient temperature and humidity. Frequency stability is generally given as a percentage of change in frequency from the desired value. Crystal Oscillators are feedback oscillator circuits in which the LC tank circuit is replaced with a crystal for the frequency-determining components. Crystallography is the study of the form, structures, properties and classifications of crystals. Piezoelectric effect occurs when oscillating mechanical stresses applied across a crystal lattice structures, generates electrical oscillations and vice versa. The mechanical vibrations are called bulk acoustic waves and are directly proportional to the amplitude of the applied voltage. The piezoelectric effect is most pronounced in Rochelle salt, which is why it is the substance commonly used in crystal microphones. Synthetic quartz, however, is used more often for frequency control in oscillators because of its permanence, low temperature coefficient, and high mechanical Q. The longitudinal axis joining points at the ends of the crystal is called the optical or Z-axis. The axis that is perpendicular to the faces of the crystal is the Y- or mechanical axis. If the direction of the frequency change is the same as the temperature change, it is called a positive temperature coefficient. If the change in frequency is in the direction opposite to the temperature change, it is called a negative temperature coefficient. The temperature coefficient of a crystal varies depending on the type of crystal cut and its operating temperature. X-cut crystals are approximately 10 times more stable that Y-cut crystals.

The GT-cut crystal is almost a perfect zero-coefficient crystal from freezing to boiling but is useful only a frequencies below a few hundred kilohertz. L is equivalent to the mass of the crystal in vibration, and R is the mechanical friction loss. In a crystal, the mechanical mass-to-friction ratio (L/R) is quite high. Typical values of L range from 0.1 H to well over 100H; consequently, Qfactors are quite high for crystals. Q-factors in the range from 10,000 to 100,000 and higher are not uncommon. If you need very good frequency stability and reasonably simple circuitry, the discrete Pierce is a good choice. If low cost and simple digital interfacing capabilities are of primary concern, an IC-based Pierce oscillator will suffice. However, for the best frequency stability, the RLC half-bridge is the best choice. The Pierce oscillator design develops a high output signal power while dissipating very little power in the crystal itself. A crystal oscillator module consists of a crystal-controlled oscillator and a voltage-variable component such as a varactor diode. A varactor diode is a specially constructed diode whose internal capacitance is enhanced when reverse biased, and by varying the reverse-bias voltage, the capacitance of the diode can be adjusted. The term graded junction is often used when describing varactor diode fabrication. Waveform and function generators are used extensively in communications and telemetry equipment as well as in laboratories for test and calibration equipment. A waveform generator is an oscillator circuit that generates well-defined, stable waveforms that can be externally modulated or swept over a given frequency range. A typical waveform generator consists of four basic sections: (1) an oscillator to generate the basic periodic waveform, (2) a waveshaper, (3) an optional AM modulator, and (4) an output buffer amplifier to isolate the oscillator from the load and provide the necessary drive current. The XR-2206 is a monolithic function generator integrated circuit manufactured by EXAR Corporation that is capable of producing highquality sine, square, triangle, ramp, and pulse waveforms with both a high degree of stability and accuracy. The XR-2206 is ideally suited to communications, instrumentation, and function generator applications requiring sinusoidal tone, AM, or FM generation. A voltage-controlled oscillator is a free-running oscillator with a stable frequency of oscillation that depends on an external timing capacitance, timing resistance, and control voltage. The output from a VCO is a frequency, and its input is a bias control signal that can be either a dc or an ac voltage. The XR-2207 is a monolithic voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) integrated circuit featuring excellent frequency stability and a wide tuning range. The XR-2207 is ideally suited for FM, FSK, and sweep or tone generation as well as for phase-locked-loop applications. The XR-2209 is a monolithic variable-frequency oscillator circuit featuring excellent temperature stability and a wide linear sweep range.

The XR-2209 is ideally suited for frequency modulation, voltage-tofrequency conversion, and sweep or tone generation as well as for phase-locked-loop applications when used in conjunction with an appropriate phase comparator. The phase-locked loop (PLL) is an extremely versatile circuit used extensively in modern electronic communications systems for performing a wide variety of functions, including modulation, demodulation, signal processing, carrier and clock recovery, frequency generation, frequency synthesis, and a wide variety of other electronic communications applications. In essence, a PLL is a closed-loop feedback control system in which either the frequency or the phase of the feedback signal is the parameter of interest rather than the magnitude of the signals voltage or current. When there is no external input signal or when the feedback loop is open, the VCO operates at a present frequency called its natural or freerunning frequency. The natural frequency is the VCOs output frequency when the PLL is not locked. A PLL has three operating states: free running, capture, and lock. The beat frequency is amplified and when applied to the input to the voltage-controlled oscillator, where it changes the VCO output frequency by an amount proportional to its polarity and amplitude. Phase comparator is a frequency comparator until frequency acquisition (zero beat) is achieved, then it becomes a phase comparator. Capture range is defined as the band of frequencies centered around the VCO natural frequency where the PLL can initially establish or acquire frequency lock with an external input signal from an unlocked condition. Capture range is sometimes called acquisition range. Pull-in range is the capture range expressed as a peak value. The lowest frequency the PLL can lock onto is called the lower capture limit, and the highest frequency the PLL can lock onto is called the upper capture limit. Lock range is defined as the band of frequencies centered on the VCOs natural frequency over which a PLL can maintain frequency lock with an external input signal. Lock range presumes that the PLL has initially captured and locked onto the external input signal. Lock range is also known as tracking range. Lock range is the range of frequencies over which the PLL will accurately track or follow the frequency of the external input signal after frequency lock has occurred. Hold-in range is the lock range expressed as a peak value. A voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) is an oscillator with a stable frequency of oscillation that depends on an external bias voltage. A phase comparator, sometimes called a phase detector, is a nonlinear device with two input signals: an external input frequency and the VCO output signal. The loop gain for a PLL is simply the product of the individual gains or transfer functions around the loop. The open-loop gain is the product of the phase comparator gain, the low-pass filter gain, the amplifier gain, and the VCO gain. The XR-215 is an ultrastable monolithic phase-locked-loop system designed by EXAR Corporation for a wide variety of applications in both analog and digital communications systems.

Lock range is the range of frequencies in the vicinity of the VCOs natural frequency over which the PLL can maintain lock with an external input signal. Digital phase-locked loops are used to track digital pulses rather than analog signals, such as in clock recovery circuits. The goal of a digital PLL is to reproduce digital synchronization and timing signals rather than to extract information from an analog-modulated wave. Synthesize means to form an entity by combining parts or elements. A frequency synthesizer is used to generate many output frequencies through the addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of a smaller number of fixed frequency sources. With direct frequency synthesis, multiple output frequencies are generated by mixing the outputs from two or more crystal-controlled frequency sources or by dividing or multiplying the output frequency from a single-crystal oscillator. With indirect frequency synthesis, a feedback-controlled divider/multiplier is used to generate multiple output frequencies. Indirect frequency synthesis is slower and more susceptible to noise; however, it is less expensive and requires fewer and less complicated filters than direct frequency synthesis. The minimum frequency separation between output frequencies for a synthesizer is called resolution. The master oscillator frequency is a base frequency that is repeatedly divided by 10 to generate five additional subbase frequencies (10 kHz, 1 kHz, 100 Hz, 10 Hz, and 1 Hz). Prescaling is also necessary for generating frequencies greater than 100 MHz because programmable counters are not available that operate efficiently at such high frequencies.

Amplitude Modulation Transmission

The process of impressing low-frequency information signals onto highfrequency carrier signal is called modulation. Demodulation is the reverse process where the received signals are transformed back to their original form. Amplitude Modulation is the process of changing the amplitude of a relatively high-frequency carrier signal in proportion with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal. AM modulators are nonlinear devices with two inputs and one output. One output is a single, high-frequency carrier signal of constant amplitude and the second input is comprised of relatively low-frequency information signals that may be a single frequency or a complex waveform made up of many frequencies. Frequencies that are high enough to be efficiently radiated by an antenna and propagated through free space are commonly called radio frequencies, or simply RFs. The modulated output waveform from an AM modulator is often called an AM envelope. AM double-sideband full carrier (DSBFC) is probably the most commonly used. AM DSBFC is sometimes called conventional AM or simply AM. The band of frequencies between fc fm and fc is called the lower sideband (LSB), and any frequency within this band is called a lower side frequency (LSF). The band of frequencies between fc and fc + fm is called upper sideband (USB), and any frequency within this band is called an upper side frequency (USF). The bandwidth of an AM DSBFC wave is equal to the difference between the highest upper side frequency and the lowest lower side frequency, or two times the highest modulating signal frequency (B=2f). Coefficient of Modulation is a term used to describe the amount of amplitude change (modulation) present in an AM waveform. Percent Modulation is simply the coefficient of modulation stated as a percentage. The average power dissipated in a load by an unmodulated carrier is equal to the rms carrier voltage squared divided by the load resistance. With low-level modulation, the modulation takes place prior to the output element of the final stage of the transmitter, in other words, prior to the output transistor in a transistorized transmitter, prior to the drain of the output FET in a FET transmitter or prior to the plate of the output tube in a vacuum-tube transmitter. An advantage of low-level modulation is that less modulating signal power is required to achieve a high percentage of modulation. In high-level modulators, the modulation takes place in the final element of the final stage where the carrier signal is at its maximum amplitude and, thus, requires a much higher amplitude modulating signal to achieve reasonable percent modulation. Emitter modulation - the carrier is applied to the base and the modulating signal to the emitter. Collector modulator - modulating signal is applied directly to the collector. Neutralizing capacitor - AM DSBFC-to isolate the DC power supply from radio frequency. Linear integrated-circuit function generators use a unique

arrangement of transistors and FET's to perform signal multiplication, which is a characteristic that makes them ideally suited for generating AM waveforms. The preamplifier is typically a sensitive, class A linear voltage amplifier with a high input impedance. The function of the preamplifier is to raise the amplitude of the source signal to a usable level while producing minimum nonlinear distortion and adding as little thermal noise as possible. The buffer amplifier is a low-gain, high-input impedance linear amplifier. Its function is to isolate the oscillator from the high-power amplifiers. Trapezoidal patterns are used characteristics of AM transmitters. for observing the modulation

At 100% modulation the minimum amplitude of the modulated signal is zero, and the trapezoidal pattern comes to a point at one end. Carrier shift is a form of amplitude distortion introduced when the positive and negative alternations in the AM modulated signal are not equal, sometimes called upward or downward modulation, Carrier shift is an indication of the average voltage of an AM modulated signal. Non sinusoidal signal are complex waveforms comprised of two or more frequency. Complex repetitive waveforms are complex waves made up of two or more harmonically related sine waves and include square, rectangular, and triangular waves. Complex modulated signals-can contain two or more unrelated frequency, such as voice signals originating from different sources. Quadrature amplitude modulation is a form of amplitude modulation where signals from two separate information sources modulate the same carrier frequency at the same time without interferring each other. The information sources modulate the same carrier after it has been separated into two carrier signals that are 90 degrees out of phase with each other. Synchronous detection - demodulating quadrature amplitude signals requires the carrier recovery circuit to reproduce the original carrier frequency and phase and two balanced modulators to actually demodulate the signal. QAM is sometimes called phase-division multiplexing and was one of the modulation techniques considered for stereo broadcasting of AM signals. For now, quadrature AM is the modulation scheme used for encoding color signals in analog television broadcasting systems.

Amplitude Modulation Reception

AM demodulation is the reversed process of AM modulation. Tuning the receiver - the selection process of AM w/c is capable of bandlimiting the total radio frequency spectrum to a specific desired band of frequency. The RF section is the first stage of the receiver and is therefore often called receiver front end. The primary function of the RF section are detecting, bandlimiting, and amplifying the received RF signal. The mixer/converter section down-converts the receive RF frequencies to intermediate frequencies (IFs). Intermediate frequencies (IFs) are simply frequencies that fall somewhere between the RF and information frequencies. The primary functions of the IF section are amplification and selectivity. The AM detector demodulates the AM wave and converts it to the original information signal, and the audio section simply amplifies the recovered information. Selectivity is a receiver parameter that is used to measure the ability of the receiver to accept a given band of frequency and reject all others. Shape factor - The ratio of two level bandwidth attenuation. The noise reduction ratio achieved by reducing the bandwidth is called bandwidth improvement (BI). The corresponding reduction in the noise figure due to reduction in bandwidth is called noise figure improvement. The sensitivity of a receiver is the minimum RF signal level that can be detected at the input to the receiver and still produce a usable demodulated information signal. Receiver sensitivity is sometimes called threshold. The dynamic range of a receiver is defined as the difference in decibels between the minimum input level necessary to discern a signal and the input level that will override the receiver and produce distortion. Dynamic range is the input power range over which the receiver is useful. 1dB Compression point is defined as the output power when the RF amplifier response is 1 dB less than the ideal linear-gain response. Fidelity is a measure of the ability of a communications system to produce at the output of the receiver, an exact replica of the original source information. Phase distortion is not particularly important for voice transmission because the human ear is relatively insensitive to phase variation. Absolute phase shift is the total phase shift encountered by a signal and can generally be tolerated as long as all frequencies undergo the same amount of phase delay. Differential phase shift occurs when different frequencies undergo different frequencies undergo different phase shifts and may have a detrimental effect on a complex waveform, especially if the information is encoded into the phase into the carrier as it is with phase keying modulation. Amplitude distortion occurs when the amplitude-versus frequency characteristics of a signal at the output of a receiver differ from those of the original information signal. It is also the result of nonuniform gain in amplifiers and filters.

Frequency distortion occurs when frequencies are present in a received signal that were not present in the original source information. Frequency distortion is a result of harmonic and intermodulation distortion and is caused by non linear amplification. Second-order products are usually only a problem in broadband systems because they generally fall outside the bandwidth of a narrowband system. Third-order products often fall within the system bandwidth and produce a distortion called third-order intercept distortion. Frequency distortion can be reduced by using a square-law device, such as a FET, in the front end of a receiver. Insertion loss (IL) is a parameter associated with the frequency that fall within the passband of a filter and is generally defined as the ratio of the power transferred to a load with a filter in the circuit to the power transferred to a load without the filter. Equivalent noise temperature is a hypothetical value that cannot be directly measured. It is also a parameter that is often used in low-noise, sophisticated radio receivers rather than noise figure. It is an indication of the reduction in the signal-to-noise ratio as a signal propagates through a receiver. With a coherent, or synchronous, receiver, the frequency generated is the receiver and used for demodulation are synchronize to oscillator frequencies generated in the transmitter. With non-coherent, or asynchronous, receivers, either no frequencies are generated in the receiver or the frequencies used for demodulation are completely independent from the transmitter's carrier frequency. Non-coherent detection is often called envelope detection because the information is recovered from the received waveform by detecting the shape of the modulated envelope. The tuned radio-frequency (TRF) receiver was one of the earliest types of AM receivers. TRF receivers are probably the simplest design radio receiver available today. The primary disadvantage is their bandwidth is inconsistent and varies with center frequency when turned over a wide range of input frequency. This is caused by a phenomenon called skin effect.. The second disadvantage of TRF receivers is instability due to the large number of RF amplifiers all tunes to the same center frequency. High frequency, multi stage amplifiers are susceptible to breaking into oscillations. The third disadvantage of TRF receivers is their gains are not uniform over a very wide frequency range because of the nonuniform L/C ratios of the transformer coupled tank circuits in the RF amplifiers. Stagger Tuning - tuning the amplifier to slightly different frequency, slightly above or below the desired center frequency. Heterodyne means to mix two frequencies together in a non linear device or to translate one frequency to another nonlinear mixing. The preselector is a broad tuned band pass filter with an adjustable center frequency that is tuned to the desired carrier frequency. The primary purpose of the preselector is to provide enough intial bandlimiting to prevent a specific unwanted radio frequency, called the image frequency, from entering the receiver. Mixer Stage is a nonlinear device and its purpose is to convert radio frequency to intermediate frequencies.

IF section consists of a series of IF amplifiers and bandpass filters is often called IF strip. The purpose of the detector section is to convert the IF signals back to the original source information. The detector is generally called audio detector or the second detector in a broadcast-band receiver because the information signals are audio frequencies Audio amplifier section. The audio section comprises several cascaded audio amplifiers and one or more speakers. Intermediate frequencies simply refer to the frequencies that are used within a transmitter or receiver that fall somewhere between the radio frequency and the original source information frequencies. Frequency conversion in the mixer/converter stage is identical to frequency conversion in the modulator stage of the transmitter except that, in the receiver, the frequencies are down converted rather than up converted. Gang tuning means that the two adjustments are mechanically tied together so that a single adjustment will change the center frequency of the preselector and, at the same time, change the local oscillator frequency. When the local oscillator frequency is tuned above the RF, it is called high-side injection or high-beat injection. When the local oscillator is tuned below the RF, it is called low-side injection or low beat-injection. Sideband inversion - side frequencies undergo a sideband reversal during the heterodyning process. Sideband inversion is not detrimental to conventional double-sideband AM because exactly the same information is contained in both sidebands. Tracking is the ability of the local oscillator in the receiver to oscillate either above or below the selected radio frequency carrier by an amount equal to the intermediate frequency throughout the entire radio frequency band. The difference between the actual local oscillator frequency and the desired frequency is called tracking error. The tracking error is reduced by a technique called three-point tracking. Ganged capacitors are relatively large, expensive, and inaccurate, and they are somewhat difficult to compensate. Image frequency is any frequency other than the selected radio frequency carrier that, if allowed to enter a receiver and mix with the local oscillator, will produce a cross product frequency that is equal to the intermediate frequency. The image-frequency rejection ratio (IFRR) is a numerical measure of the ability of a preselector to reject the image frequency. The closer the RF is to the IF, the closer the RF is the image frequency. Double spotting occurs when a receiver picks up the same station at two nearby points on the receiver tuning dial. One point is the desired location, and the other point is called the spurious point. Double spotting is caused by poor front-end selectivity or inadequate image-frequency rejection. An RF amplifier is a high gain, low noise, tuned amplifiers that, when used, is the first active stage encountered by the received signal. Intermodulation and harmonic distortion are both forms of non-linear

distortion that increase the magnitude of the noise figure by adding correlated noise to the total noise spectrum. Feedthrough capacitors offer less inductance, which prevents a portion of the signal from radiating from their leads. A cascoded amplifier offers higher gain and less noise than conventional cascaded amplifiers. High Performance microwave receivers require a low-noise amplifier (LNA) as the input stage of the RF section to optimize their noise figure. A special type of gallium arsenide FET most often used is the MESFET (MEsa Semiconductor FET). A MESFET is a FET with a metal-semiconductor junction at the gate of the device, called the Schottky barrier. The NE/SA5200 is a wideband, unconditionally stable, low power, dual gain linear integrated circuit RF amplifier manufactured by Signetics Corporation. This loss is called conversion loss (or sometimes called conversion gain) because of frequency conversion occurred and at the same time, the IF signal is lower in amplitude than the RF input signal. Self-excited mixer the mixer excites itself by feeding energy back to the local oscillator tank circuit to sustain oscillations. Balanced mixers are one of the most important circuits used in communication systems today. Balanced mixers are also called balanced modulators, product modulators and product detectors. The NE/SA602A is a low power VHF monolithic double balanced mixer with input amplifier, on board oscillator, and voltage regulator. A Gilbert cell is a differential amplifier that that drives a balance switching cell. Typically provides 18dB of gain at 45MHz. Intermediate Frequency (IF) amplifiers are relatively high gain tuned amplifiers that are very similar to RF amplifiers, except that IF amplifiers operate over a relatively narrow, fixed frequency band. Inductive or transformer coupling is the most common technique used for coupling IF amplifiers. The ability of a coil to induce a voltage within its own winding is called self-inductance or simply inductance (L). The ability of one coil to induce a voltage in another coil is called mutual inductance (M). The transfer of flux from the primary and secondary windings is called flux linkage and is directly proportional to the coefficient of coupling. Tuned primary tune secondary - both the primary and secondary windings of the transformer t1 are tuned tank circuits. Critical coupling is the point where the reflected resistance is equal to the primary resistance and the Q of the primary tank circuit is halved and the bandwidth doubled. Double peaking is cause by the reactive element of the reflected impedance being significant enough to change the resonant frequency of the primary tuned circuit. Optimum coupling - the coefficient of coupling approximately 50% greater than the critical value yields a good compromise between flat response and steep skirts. IF transformers come as specially designed tuned circuit in groundable metal packages called IF cans.

CA3028A is a differential cascoded amplifier designed for use in communications and industrial equipment as an IF or RF amplifier at frequency from DC to 120MHz. Rectifier distortion - If the RC time is too short, the output waveform resembles a half-wave rectified signal. Diagonal Clipping-If the RC time constant is too long, the slope of the output waveform cannot follow the trailing slope of the envelope. An automatic gain control (AGC) circuit compensates for minor variations in the received RF signal level. The AGC circuit automatically increases the receiver gain for weak RF input levels and automatically decreases the receiver gain when a strong RF signal is received. The purpose of AGC is to allow a receiver to detect and demodulate, equally well, signals that are transmitted from different stations whose output power and distance from the receiver vary. Delayed AGC prevents the AGC feedback voltage from reaching the RF or IF amplifiers until the RF level exceeds a predetermined magnitude. Forward AGC is similar to conventional AGC except that the receive signal is monitored closer to the front end of the receiver and the correction voltage is fed forward to the IF amplifiers. The purpose of a squelch circuit is to quiet a receiver in the absence of a received signal. A squelch circuit keeps the audio section of the receiver turned off or muted in the absence of a received signal. Sporadic, high-amplitude noise transients of short duration, such as impulse noise, can often be removed using diode limiters or clippers in the audio section of a receiver. A blanking circuit is another circuit option commonly used for reducing the effects of amplitude noise pulses. Another method of measuring signal strength relative to noise strength is called signal-to-notched noise ratioNet receiver gain is simply the ratio of the demodulated signal level at the output of the receiver to the RF signal at the input to the receiver, or the difference between the audio signal level in dBm and the RF signal level in dBm. Net receiver gain includes only components within the receiver beginning at the input to the preselector. System gain includes all the gains and losses incurred by a signal as it propagates from the transmitter output stage to the output of the detector in the receiver and includes antenna gain and transmission line and propagation losses.

Single-Sideband Communications Systems

The most prevalent use of single-sideband suppressed-carrier system is with multi-channel communication systems employing frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) such as long-distance telephone systems. Single sideband was mathematically recognized and understood as early as 1914; however, not until 1923 was the first patent granted and a successful communications link established between England and the United States. AM single-sideband full carrier (SSBFC) is a form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier is transmitted at full power but only one of the sidebands is transmitted. SSBFC transmissions require only half as much bandwidth as conventional double sideband AM. AM single-sideband suppressed carrier (SSBSC) is a form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier is totally suppressed and one of the sidebands removed. SSBSC requires half as much bandwidth as conventional doublesideband AM and considerably less transmitted power. AM single-sideband reduced carrier (SSBRC) is a form of amplitude modulation in which one sideband is totally removed and the carrier voltage is reduced to approximately 10% of its unmodulated amplitude. SSBRC is sometimes called single-sideband reinserted carrier. Reduced-carrier transmission is sometimes called exalted carrier because the carrier is elevated in the receiver prior to demodulation. AM independent sideband (ISB) is a form of amplitude modulation in which a single carrier frequency is independently modulated by two different modulating signals. AM vestigial sideband (VSB) is a form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier and one complete sideband are transmitted, but only part of the second sideband is transmitted. The carrier is transmitted at full power. The total power transmitted necessary to produce a given signal-to-noise ratio at the output of a receiver is a convenient and useful means of comparing the power requirement and relative performance of singlesideband to conventional AM system. The signal-to-noise ratio determines the degree of intelligibility of a received signal Peak envelope power (PEP) is the RMS power developed at the crest of the modulation envelope. Selective fading. With double sideband transmission, the two sidebands and carrier may propagate through the transmission media by different paths and, therefore, experience different transmission impairments. With sideband fading, one sideband is significantly attenuated. This loss results in a reduced signal amplitude at the output of the receiver demodulator and, consequently, a 3-dB reduced signal-to-noise ratio. The most common and most serious form of selective fading is carrieramplitude fading. Reduction of the carrier level of a 100%-modulated wave will make the carrier voltage less than the vector sum of the two sidebands. AM modulator is a product modulator; the output signal is the product of the modulation signal and the carrier. Double sideband suppressed-carrier (DSBSC) modulators - modulator circuits that inherently remove the carrier during the modulation process.

A circuit that produces a double sideband-suppressed carrier signal is a balanced modulator. The balanced ring modulator is sometimes called a balanced lattice modulator or simply balanced modulator. Carrier leak - If the diodes are not perfectly matched or if the transformers are not exactly center tapped, the circuit is out of balance, and the carrier is not totally suppressed. The transmitters used for single sideband suppressed and reduced carrier transmission are identical except that the reinserted carrier transmitters have an additional circuit that adds a low amplitude carrier to the single sideband waveform after suppressed carrier modulation has been performed and one of the sidebands has been removed. The reinserted carrier is called a pilot carrier. The circuit where the carrier is reinserted is called linear summer if the resistive network and a hybrid coil if the SSB waveform and the pilot carrier are inductively combined in a transformer bridge circuit. Three transmitter configuration are commonly used for single sideband generation: the filter method, the phase-shift method, and the so-called third method. The crystal lattice filter is commonly used in single sideband systems. The operation of the crystal filter is similar to the operation of a bridge circuit. When the reactance of the bridge arms are equal and have the same sign, the signals propagating through the two possible paths of the bridge cancel each other out. Ceramic filters are made from lead zirconate-titanate, which exhibits the piezoelectric effect. Mechanical filter is a mechanically resonant transducer. It receives electrical energy, converts it to mechanical vibrations, and then converts them back to electrical energy at its output. Surface acoustic wave (SAW) filters were first developed in 1960s but did not become commercially available until the 1970s. SAW filters use acoustic energy rather than electromechanical energy to provide excellent performance for precise bandpass filtering. Unidirectional transducer - a complex structure which is used to launch the acoustic wave only in one direction. The carrier recovery circuit is a narrowband PLL that tracks the pilot carrier in the composite SSBRC receiver signal and uses the recovered carrier to regenerate coherent local oscillator frequencies in the synthesizer. Amplitude-compandoring single sideband (ACSSB) system provide narrowband voice communications for land mobile services with nearly the quality achieved with FM systems and do it with less than the one third the bandwidth. A device that performs compression and expansion is called a compandor (compressor-expander). Quadrature multiplexing (QM) is a multiplexing method that uses double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission to combine two information sources into a single composite waveform that is then transmitted over a common facility without the two channel interfering with each other. A two-frequency test signal is used for the modulating signal for which the two tones have equal amplitudes.

Angle Modulation Transmission

Angle modulation was first introduced in 1931 as an alternative to amplitude modulation. Major E. H. Armstrong (who also developed he superheterodyne receiver) developed the first successful FM radio system in 1936, and in July 1939, the first regularly scheduled broadcasting of FM signals began in Alpine, New Jersey. Angle modulation results whenever the phase angle of a sinusoidal wave is varied with respect to time. Direct Frequency modulation (FM): Varying the frequency of a constant amplitude carrier directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal at the rate equal to the frequency of the modulating signal. Direct phase modulation (PM): Varying the phase of a constant amplitude carrier directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal at the rate to the frequency of the modulating signal. The relative angular displacement of the carrier phase in radians in respect to the reference phase is called phase deviation. The relative displacement of the carrier frequency in hertz in respect to its unmodulated value is called frequency deviation. The instantaneous phase deviation is the instantaneous change in the phase of the carrier at a given instant of time and indicates how much the phase of the carrier is changing with respect to its reference phase. The instantaneous phase is the precise phase of the carrier at a given instant of time. The instantaneous frequency deviation is the instantaneous change in the frequency of the carrier and is defined as the first time derivative of the instantaneous phase deviation. The instantaneous frequency is the precise frequency of the carrier at a given instant of time and is defined as the first time derivative of the instantaneous phase. Peak phase deviation is called the modulation index (or sometimes index of modulation). Frequency deviation is the change in frequency that occurs in the carrier when it is acted on by a modulating-signal frequency. The peak-to-peak frequency deviation is sometimes called carrier swing. With angle modulation, percent modulation is simply the ratio of the frequency deviation actually produced to the maximum frequency deviation allowed by law stated in percent form. A phase modulator is a circuit in which the carrier is varied in such a way that its instantaneous phase is proportional to the modulating signal. The unmodulated carrier is a single frequency sinusoid and commonly called the rest frequency. A frequency modulator (often called frequency deviator) is a circuit in which the carrier is varied in such a way that its instantaneous phase is proportional to the integral of the modulating signal. Four commonly used equivalences are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. PM modulator = differentiator followed by an FM modulator. PM demodulator = FM demodulator followed by an integrator FM modulator = integrator followed by a pm modulator FM demodulator-PM demodulator followed by a differentiator

In 1922, J.R. Carson mathematically proved that for a modulating-signal frequency, a frequency modulated wave cannot be accommodated in a narrower bandwidth than an amplitude-modulated wave. Low-index FM systems are sometimes called narrowband FM. For a high-index signal, a method of determining the bandwidth called the quasi-stationary approach may be used. Carson's rule approximates the bandwidth necessary to transmit an angle modulated waves as twice the sum of the peak frequency deviation and the highest modulating signal frequency. By definition, deviation ratio (DR) is the worst-case modulation index and is equal to the maximum peak frequency deviation divided by the maximum modulating signal frequency. The highest side frequencies from one channel are allowed to spill over into adjacent channels, producing an interference known as adjacent channel interference. A preemphasis network is a high pass filter (i.e., a differentiator) and a deemphasis network-is a low pass filter (an integrator). Direct FM is angle modulation in which the frequency of the carrier is varied directly by modulating the signal. A varactor diode is used to transform changes in the modulating signal amplitude to changes in frequency. Linear integrated circuit voltage-controlled oscillators and function generators can generate a direct FM output waveform that is relatively stable, accurate, and directly proportional to the input modulating signal. Direct PM is angle modulation in which the frequency of the carrier is deviated indirectly by the modulating signal. Transistor phase shifters are capable of producing peak phase shifts as high as 0.375 radians. With the heterodyne method, a relatively low frequency, angle modulated carrier along with its side frequency are applied to one input of a balanced modulator. With multiplication method of frequency up-conversion, the modulation properties of the carrier can be increased at the same time that the carrier frequency is up-converted. An automatic frequency control circuit compares the frequency of the non crystal carrier oscillator to a crystal reference oscillator and then produces a correction voltage proportional to the difference between two frequencies. The purpose of the AFC loop is to achieve near crystal stability of the transmit carrier frequency without using a crystal in the carrier oscillator. A frequency discriminator is a frequency selective device whose output voltage is proportional to the difference between the input frequency and its resonant frequency. Wipe off - if the discriminator responded to the frequency deviation, the feedback loop would cancel the deviation and, thus, remove the modulation from the FM wave. Noise immunity - the most significant advantage of angle modulation transmission over amplitude modulation transmission. With the use of limiters, FM and PM demodulators can actually reduce the noise level and improve the signal to noise ratio during the demodulation process. This is called FM thresholding. With FM and PM, a phenomenon known as the capture effect allows a receiver to differentiate between two signals received with the same frequency.

Carrier Null - this property is often used to determine the modulation index or set the deviation sensitivity of an FM modulator.

Angle Modulation Reception and FM Stereo

The final IF amplifier is specially designed for ideal saturation characteristics and is called a limiter, or sometimes passband limiter if the output is filtered. FM demodulators are frequency-dependent circuits designed to produce an output voltage that is proportional to the instantaneous frequency at its input. Several circuits are used for demodulating FM signals. The most common are the slope detector, Foster-Seeley discriminator, ratio detector, PLL demodulator, and quadrature detector. The slope detector, Foster-Seeley discriminator, and ratio detector are forms of tuned-circuit frequency discriminators. The single-ended slope detector has the most non linear voltage versus frequency characteristics and therefore, is seldom used. A single-ended slope detector is a tuned-circuit frequency discriminator, and a balanced slope detector is simply two single-ended slope detectors connected in parallel and fed 180 out of phase. A Foster-Seeley discriminator (sometimes called a phase shift discriminator) is a tuned circuit frequency discriminator whose operation is very similar to that of the balanced slope detector. A ratio detector is relatively immune to amplitude variations in its input signal. A PLL frequency demodulator requires no tuned circuits and automatically compensates for changes in the carrier frequency due to instability in the transmit oscillator. A quadrature FM demodulator (sometimes called a coincidence detector) extract the original information signal from the composite IF waveform by multiplying quadrature signals. With FM, however, the information is contained in frequency variations, allowing the unwanted amplitude variations to be removed with special circuits called limiters. A limiter the circuit that produces a constant amplitude output for all input signals above prescribed minimum input level, which is often called threshold, quieting, or capture level. A bandpass Limiter/amplifier (BPL) is essentially a class A biased tuned IF amplifier, and for limiting and FM quieting to occur, it requires an IF input signal sufficient enough to drive it into both saturation and cut off. The inherent ability of FM to diminish the effects of interfering signals is called the capture effect. The capture ratio of an FM receiver is the minimum dB difference in signal strength between two receive signals necessary for the capture effect to suppress the weaker signal. Capture ratios of 1dB are typical for high quality FM receivers. The NE/SA614A is an improved monolithic low power FM IF system manufactured by Signetics Corporation. The NE/SA614A is a high gain, high frequency device that offers low power consumption and excellent input sensitivity at 455 kHz. The TDA7000 is a monolithic integrated circuit FM radio system manufactured by Signetics Corporation for monophonic FM portable radios. With mono transmission, each speaker assembly at the receiver reproduces exactly the same information. It is possible to separate the information frequencies with special speakers, such as woofers for low frequencies and tweeters for high frequencies.

In 1961, the FCC authorized stereophonic transmission for the commercial FM broadcast band. With stereophonic transmission, the information signal is spatially divided into two 50-Hz to 15-kHz audio channels (a left and a right). Also with stereophonic transmission, it is possible to separate music or sound by tonal quality, such as percussion, string, horns, and so on. The process of placing two or more independent channels next to each other in the frequency domain, and then modulating a single high frequency carrier with the combined signal is called frequency division multiplexing (FDM). The XR-1310 is a monolithic FM stereo demodulator that uses PLL techniques to derive the right and left audio channels from the composite stereo signal. Class D citizens band radio. Provides 26.96 to 27.41 MHz (40, 10kHz shared channels) public, non commercial radio service for either personal or business use utilizing push to talk AM DSBFC and AM SSBFC. Amateur (ham) radio. Covers a broad frequency band from 1.8 MHz to above 300MHz. Design for personal use without pecuniary interest. Aeronautical Broadcasting Service (ABS). Provides 2.8MHz to 457MHz ABS disseminates information for the purposes of air navigation and air to ground communications utilizing conventional AM and various forms of AM SSB in the HF, MF, and VHF frequency bands. Three primary frequency bands are allocated by the FCC for two-way FM radio communications: 132 MHz to 174 MHz, 450 MHz to 470 MHz, and 806 MHz to 947 MHz. The maximum frequency deviation for two-way FM transmitter is typically 5 kHz, and the maximum modulating-signal frequency is 3 kHz. The electronic push-to-talk (PTT) is used rather than a simple mechanical switch to reduce the static noise associated with contact bounce in mechanical switches. Transmitters equipped with VOX (voice-operated transmitter) are automatically keyed each time the operator speaks into the microphone, regardless of whether the PTT button is depressed.

Digital Modulation
Electronic Communications is the transmission, reception and the processing of information with the use of electronic circuits. Information is defined as knowledge communicated between two or more points. or intelligence that is

The minimum theoretical bandwidth necessary to propagate a signal is called minimum Nyquist bandwidth or sometimes called minimum Nyquist frequency. The simplest digital modulation technique is amplitude-shift keying (ASK), where a binary information signal directly modulates the amplitude of an analog carrier. Amplitude-shift keying modulation (DAM). is sometimes called digital amplitude

Digital modulation is the transmittal of digitally modulated analog signals (carriers) between two or more points in a communications system. Digital modulation is sometimes called digital radio because digitally modulated signals can be propagated through Earths atmosphere and used in wireless communications systems. Digital Communications include systems where relatively high frequency analog carriers are modulated by relatively low frequency digital information signals (digital radio) and systems involving the transmission of digital pulses. If the information signal is digital and the amplitude of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, a digitally modulated signal called amplitude shift keying (ASK) is produced. If the frequency is varied proportional to the information signal, frequency shift keying (FSK) is produced. If the phase of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, phase shift keying (PSK) is produced. if both amplitude and the phase are varied proportional to the information signal, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) results. Information theory is a highly theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth to propagate information through electronic communication systems. Information capacity is a measure of how much information can be propagated through a communications system and is a function of bandwidth and transmission time. Information capacity represents the number of independent symbols that can be carried through a system in a given unit of time. Bit rate is simply the number of bits transmitted during one second and is expressed in bits per second (bps). In 1928, R.Hartley of Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a useful relationship among bandwidth, transmission time, and information capacity. In 1948, mathematician Claude E. Shannon published a paper in bell system technical journal relating the information capacity of a communication channel to bandwidth and signal to noise ratio. The higher the signal-to-noise ratio, the better the performance and the higher the information capacity. M-ary is a term derived from the word binary. M simply represents a digit that corresponds to the number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible for a given number of binary variables. Bit rate refers to the rate of change of a digital information signal, which is usually binary. Baud refers to the rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after encoding and modulation have occurred. Baud is the reciprocal of the time of one output signaling element, and a signaling element may represent several information bits. According to H. Nyquist, binary digital signals can be propagated through an ideal noiseless transmission medium at a rate equal to two times the bandwidth of the medium.

Amplitude-shift keying is sometimes referred to as a on-off keying (OOK). Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is another relatively simple, low performance type of digital modulation. FSK is a form of constant amplitude angle modulation similarly to standard frequency modulation (FM) except the modulating signal is a binary signal that varies between two discrete voltage levels rather than a continuously changing analog form. Consequently, FSK is sometimes called binary FSK (BFSK). The most common circuit used for demodulating binary FSK signals is the phase-locked loop (PLL). Continuous-phase frequency-shift keying (CP-FSK) is a binary FSK except the mark and space frequency are synchronized with the input binary bit rate. Phase-shift keying (PSK) is another form of angle-modulated, constant-amplitude digital modulation. PSK is an M-ary digital modulation scheme similar to conventional phase modulation except with psk the input is a binary digital signal and there are a limited number of output phases possible. The simplest form of PSK is binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), where N=1 and M=2. As the input digital signal changes state, the phase of the output carrier shifts between two angles that are separated by 180 degrees. Other names for BPSK are phase reversal keying (PRK) and biphase modulation. A constellation diagram, which is sometimes called a signal statephase diagram, is similar to a phasor diagram except that the entire phasor is not drawn. A balanced modulator is a product modulator; the output signal is the product of the two input signals. BPSK modulator-the carrier input signal is multiplied by the binary data. The coherent carrier recovery circuit detects and regenerates a carrier signal that is both frequency and phase coherent with the original transmit carrier. The low-pass filter (LPF) separates the recovered binary data from the complex demodulated signal. Quarternary phase shift keying (QPSK), or quadrature PSK as it is sometimes called, is an other form of an angle modulated, constant amplitude digital modulation. QPSK is an M-ary encoding scheme where N=2 and M=4. Offset QPSK (OQPSK) is a modified form of QPSK where the bit waveforms on the I and Q channels are offset or shifted in the phase from each other by one-half of a bit time OQPSK is sometimes called OKQPSK (offset-keyed QPSK).

With 8-PSK, three bits are encoded, forming tribits and producing eight different output phases. With 8-PSK ,n-3 M=8, and there are 8 possible output phases. Gray Code or, sometimes, the maximum distance code. This code is used to reduce the number of transmission errors. Using the Gray code results in only a single bit being received in error. 16-PSK is an M-ary encoding technique where M=16; there are 16 different output phases possible. With 16 PSK, four bits (called quadbits) are combined, producing 16 different output phases. Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is a form of digital modulation similar to PSK except the digital information is contained in both the amplitude and the phase of the transmitted carrier. 8-QAM is an M-ary encoding technique where M=8. Unlike 8-PSK, the output signal from an 8-QAM modulator is not a constant amplitude signal. As with the 16-PSK, 16-QAM is an M-ary system where M=16. The input data are acted on in groups of four (2^4 = 16). Bandwidth efficiency (sometimes called information density or spectral efficiency) is often used to compare the performance of one digital modulation technique to another. Carrier recovery is the process of extracting a phase coherent reference carrier from a receiver signal. This is sometimes called phase referencing. The squaring circuit removes the modulation and generates the second harmonic of the carrier frequency. The Costas loop produces the same result as a squaring circuit followed by an ordinary PLL in place of the BPF. The remodulator produces a loop error voltage that is proportional to twice the phase error between the incoming signal and the VCO signal. Differential phase-shift keying (DPSK) is an alternative form of digital modulation where the binary input information is contained in the difference between two successive signaling elements rather than the absolute phase. Differential binary phase-shift keying - an incoming information bit is XNORed with the preceding bit prior to entering the BPSK modulator. Data transmission rates in excess of 56 kbps can be achieved, however over standard telephone circuit using an encoding technique called trellis code modulation (TCM). Dr. Ungerboeck at IBM Zuerich Research Laboratory developed TCM, convolutional (tree) codes, which combines encoding and modulation to reduce the probability of error, thus improving the bit error performance. Trellis code modulation is sometimes thought of as a magical method of increasing transmission bit rates over communications systems using QAM or PSK with fixed bandwidths. Trellis Coding also defines the manner in which signal state transitions are allowed to occur, and transitions that do not follow this pattern are interpreted in the receiver as transmission error. TCM is thought of as a coding scheme that improves on standard QAM by increasing the distance between symbols on the constellations (known as the Euclidean distance). Probability of error is a theoretical (mathematical) expectation of the bit error rate for a given system. Bit error rate (BER) is an empirical (historical) record of a systems actual bit error performance.

Digital Transmission
Digital transmission is the transmittal of digital signals between two or more points in a communications system. AT&T developed the first digital transmission system for the purpose of carrying digitally encoded analog signals, such as the human voice, over metallic wire cables between telephone offices. Digital signals are also better suited than analog signals for processing and combining using a technique called multiplexing. Digital signal processing (DSP) is the processing of analog signals using digital methods and includes bandlimiting the signal with filters, amplitude equalization, and phase shifting. Pulse modulation consists essentially of sampling analog information signals and then converting those samples into discrete pulses and transporting the pulses from a source to a destination over a physical transmission medium. The four predominant method of pulse modulation include pulse width modulation (PWM), pulse position modulation (PPM), pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), and pulse code modulation (PCM). PWM is sometimes called pulse duration modulation (PDM) or pulse length modulation (PLM), as the width of a constant amplitude pulse is varied proportional to the amplitude of the analog signal at the time the signal is sampled. With PPM, the position of a constant-width pulse within a prescribed time slot is varied according to the amplitude of the sample of the analog signal. With PAM, the amplitude of a constant width, constant-position pulse is varied according to the amplitude of the sample of the analog signal. With PCM, the analog is sampled and then converted to a serial n-bit binary code for transmission. PAM is used as an intermediate form of modulation with PSK, QAM, and PCM, although it is seldom used by itself. PWM and PPM are used in special-purpose communications systems mainly for the military but are seldom used for commercial digital transmission systems. Alex H. Reeves is credited with inventing PCM in 1937 while working for AT&T at its Paris laboratories. PCM is the preferred method of communications within the public switched telephone network because with PCM it is easy to combine digitized voice and digital data into a single, high-speed digital signal and propagate it over either metallic or optical fiber cables. PCM is the only digitally encoded modulation technique that is commonly used for digital transmission. Sample and Hold circuit periodically samples the analog input signal and converts those samples to a multilevel PAM signal. The analog-to-digital converter (ADC) convert the PAM samples to parallel PCM codes, which are converted to serial binary data in parallelto-serial converter and then outputted to the transmission line as serial digital pulses. Serial to parallel converter converts serial pulses receive from the transmission line to parallel PCM codes. The digital-to-analog converter (DAC) converts the parallel PCM codes to multilevel PAM signals. An integrated circuit that performs the PCM encoding and decoding

functions is called codec (coder/decoder). The most common method used for sampling voice signals in PCM systems is flattop sampling, which is accomplished in a sample-andhold circuit. The purpose of a sample and hold circuit is to periodically sample the continually changing analog input voltage and convert those samples to a series of constant-amplitude PAM voltage levels. Aperture error is when the amplitude of the sampled signal changes during the sample pulse time. The storage time of the capacitor is called the A/D conversion time because it is during this time that the ADC converts the sample voltage to a PCM code. Droop is caused by the capacitor discharging through its own leakage resistance and the input impedance of voltage follwer Z2. If fs is less than two time fa, an impairment called alias or foldover distortion occurs antialiasing or antifoldover filter - its upper cutoff frequency is choosen such no frequency greater than one half the sampling rate is allowed to enter the sample and hold circuit, thus eliminating the ability of foldover distortion occuring. The codes currently used for PCM are sign-magnitude codes, where the most significant bit (MSB) is the sign bit and the remaining bit are used for magnitude. Quantization is the process of converting an infinite number of possibilities to a finite number of conditions. folded binary code. Codes on the bottom half of the table are a mirror image of the codes on the top half, except for the sign bit. The magnitude difference between adjacent steps is called the quantization interval or quantum. If the magnitude of the sample exceeds the highest quantization interval, overload distortion (also called peak limiting) occurs. The magnitude of a quantum is also called the resolution. The resolution is equal to the voltage of the minimum step size, which is equal to the voltage of the least significant bit of the PCM code. Any round-off errors in the transmitted signals are reproduced when the code is converted back to analog in the receiver. This error is called the quantization error. The quantization error is equivalent to additive white noise as it alters the signal amplitude. Quantization error is also called quantization noise. Dynamic range (DR) is the ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the smallest possible magnitude that can be decoded by the digital-to-analog converter in the receiver. Coding efficiency is a numerical indication of how efficiently a PCM code is utilized. Coding efficiency is the ratio of the minimum number of bits required to achieve a certain dynamic range to the actual number of PCM bits used. Three-bit PCM coding consists of linear codes, which means that the magnitude change between any two successive codes is the same. The worst possible signal voltage-to-quantization noise voltage ratio (SQR) occurs when the input signal is at its minimum amplitude.

With nonlinear or nonuniform encoding, the step size increases with the amplitude of the input signal. During times when where is no analog input signal, the only input to the PAM sampler is random, thermal noise. This noise is called idle channel noise and is converted to a PAM sample just as if it were a signal. A way to reduce idle channel noise is by a method called midtread quantization. With midtread quantizing, the first quantization interval is made larger in amplitude than the rest of the steps. Midrise quantization - the lowest magnitude positive and negative codes have the same voltage range as all the other codes. Level-at-a-Time Coding. This type of coding compares the PAM signal to a ramp waveform while a binary counter is being advanced at a uniform rate. Digit-at-a-Time Coding. This type of coding determines each digit of the PCM code sequentially. Digit-at-a time coding is analogous to a balance where known reference weights are used to determine an unknown weight. One common kind of digit-at-a-time coder, called a feedback coder, uses a successive approximation register (SAR). With this type of coder, the entire PCM code word is determined simultaneously. Word-at-a-Time Coding. Word-at-a-time coders are flash encoders and are more complex; however, they are more suitable for high-speed applications Companding is the process of compressing and then expanding. Digital companding involves compression in the transmitter after the input sample has been converted to a linear PCM code and then expansion in the receiver prior to PCM decoding. Essentially every function of perform by a PCM encoder and decoder is now accomplished with a single integrated-circuit chip called a codec. Most of the more recently developed codecs are called combo chips, as include an anti aliasing (bandpass) filter, a sample and hold circuit, and an analog to digital converter in the transmit section and a digital to analog converter, a hold circuit, and a bandpass filter in the receive section. Vocoders are designed to reproduce only the short-term power spectrum, and the decoded time waveforms often only vaguely resemble the original input signal. Vocoders typically produce unnatural sounding speech and, therefore are generally used for recorded information such as wrong numbers messages, encrypted voice for transmission over analog telephone circuits, computer output signals, and educational games. The first channel vocoder was developed by Homer Dudley in 1928. Dudleys vocoder compressed conventional speech waveforms into an analog signal with a total bandwidth of approximately 300 Hz. The spectral power of most speech energy concentrates at three or four peak frequencies called formants. Formant vocoder simply determines the location of these peaks and encodes and transmits only the information with the most significant short term components. Linear predictive coder extracts the most significant portions of speech information directly from the time waveform rather than from the frequency spectrum as with the channel and formant vocoders.

Line speed is simply the data rate at which serial PCM bits are clocked out of the PCM encoder onto the transmission line. Delta modulation uses a single bit PCM code to achieve digital transmission of analog signals. The slope of the analog signal is greater than the delta modulator can maintain and is called slope overload. Granular noise - the reconstructed signal has variations that were not present in the original signal. Granular noise is more prevalent in analog signals that have gradual slopes and whose amplitudes vary only a small amount. Slope overload is more prevalent in analog signals that have steep slopes or whose amplitudes vary rapidly. Adaptive delta modulation is a delta modulation system where the step size of the DAC is automatically varied, depending on the amplitude characteristics of the analog input signal. The secondary lobes are called ringing tails. Special filters called equalizers are that are inserted in the transmission path to equalize the distortion for all frequency. Timing inaccuracies. In digital transmission systems, transmitter timing inaccuracies cause intersymbol interference if the rate of transmission does not conform to the ringing frequency design into the communications channel. Insufficient bandwidth. Timing errors are less likely to occur if the transmission rate is well below the channel bandwidth. Amplitude distortion. Filters are place in a communications channel to bandlimit signals and reduce or eliminate predicted noise and interference. Phase distortion. A pulse is simply the superposition of a series of harmonically related sine waves with specific amplitude and phase relationship. Eye pattern or eye diagram - is a convenient technique for determining the effects of the degradations introduced into the pulses as they travel to regenerator. Data transition jittter - the overlapping signal pattern does not cross the horizontal zero line at exact integer multiples of the symbol clock.

Digital T-Carriers and Multiplexing

Multiplexing is the transmission of information from one or more source to one or more destination over the same transmission medium. There are several domains in which multiplexing can be accomplished, including space, phase, time, frequency, and wavelength. Space-division multiplexing (SDM) is a rather unsophisticated form of multiplexing that simply constitutes propagating signals from different sources on different cables that are contained within the same trench. The trench is considered to be the transmission medium. QPSK is a form of phase-division multiplexing (PDM) where two data channels modulate the same carrier frequency that has been shifted 90degrees in phase. The three most predominant methods of multiplexing signals are timedivision multiplexing (TDM), frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), and the more recently developed wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM). With time division multiplexing (TDM), transmissions from multiple sources occur on the same facility but not at the same time. One eight-bit PCM code from each channel (16 total bits) is called a TDM frame, and the time it takes to transmit one TDM frame is called the frame time. The frame time is equal to the reciprocal of the sample rate (1/fs or 1/8000 = 125 us). A digital carrier system is a communication system that uses digital pulse rather than analog signals to encode information. T1 stands for transmission one and specifies a digital carrier system using PCM-encoded analog signals. A T1 carrier system time division multiplexes PCM-encoded samples from 24 voice-band channels for transmission over a single metallic wire or optical fiber transmission line. Each voice-band channels has a bandwidth of approximately 300 Hz to 3000 Hz. The system does not become a T1 carrier until it is line encoded and placed on special conditioned cables called T1 lines. Early T1 carrier systems used D1 digital channel banks (PCM encoders and decoders) with a seven-bit magnitude-only PCM code, analog companding, and u = 100. Another framing format recently developed for new designs of T1 carrier systems is the extended superframe format. The extended superframe format consists of 24 193-bit frames, totaling 4632 bits, of which 24 are framing bits. Six additional framing bits in frames 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, and 21 are used for error detection code called CRC-6 (cyclic redundancy checking). A data service unit/channel service unit (DSU/CSU) is a digital interface that provides the physical connection to a digital carrier network. To upgrade from one level in the hierarchy to the next higher level, a special device called muldem (multiplexers/demultiplexers) is required. Muldems can handle bit-rate conversions in both directions. Digital signals are routed at central locations called digital crossconnects. A digital cross-connect (DSX) provides a convenient place to make patchable interconnects and perform routine maintenance and troubleshooting. Essentially, picturephone is a low-quality video transmission for use between nondedicated subscribers.

Differential PCM is similar to conventional PCM except that the exact magnitude of a sample is not transmitted. Digital line encoding involves converting standard logic levels (TTL, CMOS, and the like) to a form more suitable to telephone line transmission. Unipolar transmission of binary data involves the transmission of only a single nonzero voltage level. In bipolar transmission, two nonzero voltages are involved. The duty cycle of a binary pulse can be used to categorize the type of transmission. If the binary pulse is maintained for the entire bit time, this is called nonreturn to zero (NRZ). If the active time of the binary pulse is less than 100% of the bit time, this is called return to zero (RZ). With alternate mark inversion (AMI) transmissions, successive logic 1s are inverted in polarity from the previous logic 1. Because return to zero is used, the encoding technique is called bipolar-return-to-zero alternate mark inversion (BPRZ-AMI) With NRZ encoding, a long string of either logic 1s or logic 0s produces a condition in which a receive may lose its amplitude reference for optimum discrimination between received 1s and 0s. This is called dc wandering. Digital biphase (sometimes called the Manchester code or diphase) is a popular type of line encoding that produces a strong timing component for clock recovery and does not cause dc wandering. Biphase M is used for encoding SMPTE (Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers) time-code data for recording on videotapes. Miller codes are forms of delay-modulation codes where a logic1 condition produces a transition in the middle of the clock pulse, and logic 0 produces no transition at the end of the clock intervals unless followed by another logic 0. Dicodes are multilevel binary codes that use more than two voltage levels to represent the data. T carriers are used for the transmission of PCM-encoded time-division multiplexed digital signals. The transmission bit rate (line speed) for a T1 carrier is 1.544 Mbps, including an 8-kbps framing bit. The lengths of T1 carrier systems typically range from about 1 mile to over 50 miles. Ensuring that sufficient transitions occur in the data stream is sometimes called ones density. With modern T1 carriers, a technique called binary eight zero substitution (B8ZS) is used to ensure that sufficient transitions occurs in the data to maintain clock synchronization. T2 carrier systems use an alternative method of ensuring that sample transitions occur in the data. This method is called binary six zero substitution (B6ZS). The coding technique use with T3 carriers is binary three zero substitution (B3ZS). In Europe, a different version of T carrier lines is used, called E-lines. Time slot 17 is used for a common signaling channel (CSC). T1 carriers using D1, D2, or D3 channel banks use added-digit framing. An alternative solution is to replace the least significant bit of every nth frame with a framing bit. This process is called robbed-digit framing.

Essentially, added-channel framing is the same as added digit framing except that digits are added in groups or words instead of as individual bits. With statistical framing, it is not necessary to either rob or add digits. With the gray code, the second bit is a logic 1 in the central half of the code range and a logic 0 at the extremes. With unique-line code framing, some property of the framing bit is different from the data bits. The framing bit is made either higher or lower in amplitude or with a different time duration. T1 carrier system use word interleaving; eight-bit samples from each channel are interleaved into a single 24-channel TDM frame. Higherspeed TDM systems and delta modulation systems use bit interleaving. There is an efficient alternative to synchronous TDM called statistical time-division multiplexing. Statistical time division multiplexing is generally not used for carrying standard telephone circuits but are used more often for the transmission of data when they are called asynchronous TDM, intelligent TDM, or simply stat muxs. A codec is a large-scale integration (LSI) chip designed for use in the telecommunication industries for private branch exchanges (PBXs), central office switches, digital handsets, voice store-and-forward systems, and digital echo suppresors. Codec is a generic term that refers to the coding functions performed by a device that converts analog signals to digital codes and digital codes to analog signals. Recently developed codecs are called combo chips because they combine codec and filter functions in the same LSI package. A combo chip can provide the analog-to-digital and the digital-to-analog conversions and the transmit and receive filtering necessary to interface a full-duplex (four-wire) voice telephone circuit to the PCM highway of a TDM carrier system. In the fixed-data-rate mode, data are input and output for a single channel in short bursts. (This mode of operation is sometimes called the burst mode.) The variable-data rate mode allows for a flexible data input and output clock frequency. With frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), multiple sources that originally occupied the same frequency spectrum are each converted to a different frequency band and transmitted simultaneously over a single transmission medium, which can be physical cable or the Earths atmosphere. The message channel is the basic building block of the FDM hierarchy. A group is the next higher level in the FDM hierarchy above the basic message channel and, consequently, is the first multiplexing step for combining message channels. The next higher level in the FDM hierarchy is the supergroup, which is formed by frequency-division multiplexing five groups containing 12 channels each for a combined bandwidth of 240 kHz. The next highest level of multiplexing is the mastergroup, which is formed by frequency-division multiplexing 10 supergroups together for a combined capacity of 600 voice-band message channels occupying a bandwidth of 2.4 MHz. Mastergroup can be further multiplexed in mastergroup banks to form jumbogroups (3600 VB channels), multijumbogroups (7200 VB channels), and superjumbogroups (10,800 VB channels). Baseband describes the modulating signal (intelligence) in the communication system.

There are two types of mastergroups: L600 and U600 types. The L600 mastergroup is used for low-capacity microwave systems, and the U600 mastergroup may be further multiplexed and used for higher-capacity microwave radio systems. Guard bands - a void band of frequency that is not included within any sipergroup band. A radio channel comprises either a single L600 mastergroup or up to three U600 mastergroups.

Multiplexers or combiners mix or combine optical signals with different wavelengths in a way that allows them to all pass through a single optical fiber without interfering with one another. Demultiplexers or splitters separate signals with different wavelengths in a manner similar to the way filters separate electrical signals of different frequencies. Add/drop multiplexer/demultiplexers are similar to regular multiplexers and demultiplexers except they are located at intermediate points in the system. Add/drop multiplexer/demultiplexers are devices that separate a wavelength from a fiber cable and reroute it on a different fiber going in a different direction. There are three basic types of WDM couplers: diffraction grating, prism, and dichroic filter. With diffraction grating or prisms, specific wavelengths are separated from the other optic signal by reflecting them at different angles. A dichroic filter is a mirror with a surface that has been coated with a material that permits light of only one wavelength to pass through while reflecting all other wavelengths. The synchronous optical network (SONET) is a multiplexing system similar to conventional time-division multiplexing except SONET was developed to be used with optical fibers.

Metallic Cable Transmission Media

Guided transmission media are those with some form of conductor that provides a conduit in which electromagnetic signals are contained. A cable transmission medium is a guided transmission medium and can be any physical facility used to propagate electromagnetic signals between two locations in a communication system. Cable transmission systems are the most common means of interconnecting devices in local area networks because cable transmission systems are the only transmission of digital signals. A transmission line is a metallic conductor system used to transfer electrical energy from one point to another using electrical current flow. With longitudinal waves, the displacement is in the direction of the propagation. With transverse waves, the direction of displacement is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Electromagnetic waves that along a transmission line from the source to the load are called incident waves, and those that travel from the load back toward the source are called reflected waves. Sound waves travel at approximately 1100 feet per second in the normal atmosphere. In free space (a vacuum), TEM waves travel at the speed of light: c = 186,283 statute miles per second, or 299,793,000 meters per second, rounded off to 186,000 mi/s and 3 X 10^8 m/s. The rate at which the periodic wave repeats is its frequency. The distance of one cycle occurring in space is called the wavelength. With two-wire balanced lines, both conductors carry current; however, one conductor carries the signal, and the other conductor is the return path. This type of transmission is called differential, or balanced, signal transmission. Current that flow in opposite directions in a balanced wire pair are called metallic circuit currents. Currents that flow in the same direction are called longitudinal currents. The cancellation of common mode signals is called common-mode rejection. Common-mode rejection ratios of 40 dB to 70 dB are common in balanced transmission lines. With an unbalanced transmission line, one wire is at ground potential, whereas the other wire is at signal potential. This type of transmission line is called single-ended or unbalanced, signal transmission. A circuit device used to connect a balanced transmission line to an unbalanced load is called a balun (balanced to unbalanced). For relatively high frequencies, several different kinds of transmission-line baluns exist. The most common type is a narrowband balun, sometimes called a choke, sleeve, or bazooka balun. The most common metallic cables used to interconnect data communications systems and computer networks today are parallelconductor transmission lines and coaxial transmission lines. Parallel-wire transmission lines are comprised of two or more metallic conductors separated by a nonconductive insulating material called a dielectric. The most common parallel conductor transmission lines are open wire, twin lead, and twisted pair.

Open-wire transmission lines are two-wire parallel conductors. Openwire transmission lines consist simply of two parallel wires closely spaced and separated by air. The primary use of open-wire transmission lines is in standard voicegrade telephone applications. Twin lead is another form of two-wire parallel-conductor transmission line. Twin lead is essentially the same as open wire transmission line except that the spacers between the two conductors are replaced with a continuous solid dielectric that ensures uniform spacing along the entire cable. A twisted-pair transmission line is form by twisting two insulated conductors with each other. The size of twisted-pair wire varies from 16-gauge to 26 gauge. The higher the wire gauge, the smaller the diameter and the higher the resistance. Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable consists of two copper wires where each wire is separately encapsulated in PVC (polyvinyl chloride) insulation. The minimum number of twists for UTP cable is two per foot. Level 1 cable (sometimes called category 1) is ordinary thin-copper, voice grade telephone wire typically installed before the establishment of the 568 standard. Level 1 cable is suitable only for voice-grade telephone signals are very low-speed data applications (typically under 2400 bps). Level 2 cable (sometimes called category 2) is only marginally better than level 1 cable but well below the standards minimum level of acceptance. Level 2 cables comply with IBMs Type 3 specification GA27-3773-1, which was developed for IEEE 802.5 Token ring local are networks operating at transmission rates of 4 Mbps. Category 3 (CAT-3) cable has more stringent requirements than level 1 or level 2 cables and must have at least three turns per inch, and no two pairs within the same cable can have the same number of turns per inch. In essence, CAT-3 cable is used for virtually any voice or data transmission rate up to 16 Mbps and, if four wire pairs are used, can accommodate transmission rates up to 100 Mbps. Category 4 (CAT-4) cable is more than little upgraded version of CAT3 cable designed to meet tighter constraints for attenuation and crosstalk. CAT-4 cable was designed for data transmission rates up to 20 Mbps. CAT-4 cables can also handle transmission rates up to 100 Mbps using cables containing four pairs of wires. Category 5 (CAT-5) cable is manufactured with more stringent design specifications than either CAT-3 and CAT-4 cables, including cable uniformity, insulation type, and number of turns per inch (12 turns per inch for CAT-5). CAT-5 cable is the cable of choice for most modern-day local area networks. CAT-5 cable was designed for data transmission rates up to 100 Mbps; however, data rates in excess of 500 Mbps are sometime achieved. Enhanced category 5 (CAT-5E) cables are intended for data transmission rates up to 250Mbps.they often operate successfully at rates up to 350Mbps or higher. Category 6 (CAT 6) cable is recently proposed cable type comprised of four pairs of wire capable of operating transmission up to 550Mbps.

Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable is a parallel two wire transmission line consisting of two copper conductors separated by a solid dielectric material. The wires and dielectric are enclosed in a conductive metal sleeve called a foil. If the sleeve is woven into a mesh, it is called a braid. Category 7 shielded-screen twisted-pair cable (SSTP) is also called PiMF (pairs in metal foil) cable. SSTP cable is comprised of four pairs of 22 or 23 AWG copper wire surrounded by a common metallic foil shield followed by a braided metallic shield. Foil twisted-pair is comprised of four pairs of 24 AWG copper wire encapsulated in a common metallic foil shield with a PVC outer sheath. Shielded-foil twisted-pair cable is comprised of four pairs of 24AWG copper wires surrounded by a common metallic foil shield encapsulated in a braided metallic shield. Plenum is the name given to the area between the ceiling and the roof in a single story building or between the ceiling and the floor of the next higher level in a multistory building. Plenum cables are coated with Teflon, which does not emit noxious chemicals when ignited, or special fire-resistant PVC, which is called plenum-grade PVC. The basic coaxial cable consists of a center conductor surrounded by a dielectric material (insulation), then a concentric (uniform distance from the center) shielding, and finally a rubber environmental protection outer jacket. Shielding refers to the woven or stranded mesh (or braid) that surrounds some types of coaxial cables. A coaxial cable with one layer of foil insulation and one layer of braided shielding is referred to as dual shielded. Rigid air-filled coaxial cables are relatively expensive to manufacture, and to minimize losses, the air insulator must be relatively free of moisture. Solid coaxial cables have lower losses than hallow cables and are easier to construct, install, and maintain. The primary disadvantage of coaxial transmission lines is their poor costto-performance ratio, low reliability, and high maintenance. BNC connectors are sometimes referred to as bayonet mount, as they can be easily twisted on or off. N-type connectors are threaded and must be screwed on and off. The characteristics of a transmission line are determined by its electrical properties, such as wire conductivity and insulator dielectric constant, and its physical properties, such as wire diameter and conductor spacing. Characteristic impedance (sometimes called surge impedance) is defined as the impedance seen looking into an infinitely long line or the impedance seen looking into a finite length of line that is terminated in a purely resistive load with a resistance equal to the characteristic impedance of the line. Propagation constant (sometimes called propagation coefficient) is used to express the attenuation (signal loss) and the phase shift per unit length of a transmission line. Velocity factor (sometimes called velocity constant) is defined simply as the ratio of the actual velocity of propagation of an electromagnetic wave through a given medium to the velocity of propagation of an electromagnetic wave through a given medium to the velocity of propagation through a vacuum. Dielectric constant is simply the relative permittivity of the material. Delay lines are transmission lines designed to intentionally introduce a

time delay in the path of an electromagnetic wave. Because electrical current flows through a metallic transmission line and the line has a finite resistance, there is an inherent and unavoidable power loss. This is sometimes called conductor loss or conductor heating loss and is simply an I^2R power loss. The ratio of the ac resistance to the dc resistance of a conductor is called the resistance ratio. A difference of potential between two conductors of a metallic transmission line causes dielectric heating. However, for solid-core transmission lines, dielectric heating loss increases with frequency. Radiation losses are reduced by properly shielding the cable. Coupling loss occurs whenever a connection is made to or from a transmission line or when two sections of transmission line are connected together. Corona is a luminous discharge that occurs between the two conductors of a transmission line when the difference of potential between them exceeds the breakdown voltage of the dielectric insulator. Voltage that propagates from the source toward the load is called incident voltage, and voltage that propagates from the load toward the source is called reflected voltage. A transmission line with no reflected power is called a flat or nonresonant line. The reflection coefficient (sometimes called the coefficient of reflection) is a vector quantity that represents the ratio of reflected voltage to incident voltage or reflected current to incident current. When Zo = Zl, all the incident power is absorbed by the load. This is called a matched line. When Zo <> Zl, some of the incident power is absorbed by the load, and some is returned (reflected) to the source. This is called an unmatched or mismatched line. With a mismatched line, there are two electromagnetic waves, traveling in opposite directions, present on the line at the same time. The two traveling waves set up an interference pattern known as a standing wave. The standing-wave ratio (SWR) is defined as the ratio of the maximum voltage to the minimum voltage or the maximum current to the minimum current of a standing wave on a transmission line SWR is often called the voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR). When incident waves of voltage and current reach an open termination, none of the power is absorbed; it is all reflected back toward the source. When a transmission line is terminated in either a short or an open circuit, there is an impedance inversion every quarter-wavelength. Power is transferred most efficiently to a load when there are no reflected waves, that is, when the load is purely resistive and equal to Zo. Whenever the characteristic impedance of a transmission line and its load are not matched (equal), standing waves are present on the line, and maximum power is not transferred to the load. Standing waves cause power loss, dielectric breakdown, noise, radiation, and ghost signals. Quarter-wavelength transformers are used to match transmission lines to purely resistive loads whose resistance is not equal to the characteristic impedance of the line. A transmission-line stub is simply a piece of additional transmission line that is placed across the primary line as close to the load as possible.

With stub matching, either a shorted or an open stub can be used. Shorted stubs are preferred because open stubs have a tendency to radiate, especially at the higher frequency. A technique that can be used to locate impairment in a metallic cable is called time-domain reflectometry (TDR). Echo - the return signal. Microstrip is simply a flat conductor separated from a ground plane by an insulating dielectric material. Stripline is simply a flat conductor sandwiched between two ground planes.

Optical Fiber Transmission Media

An optical communications system is one that uses light as the carrier of information. The photophone was a device constructed from mirrors and selenium detectors that transmitted sound waves over a beam of light. In 1930, J. L. Baird, an English scientist, and C. W. Hansell, a scientist from the United States, were granted patents for scanning transmitting television images through uncoated fiber cables. A German scientist named H. Lamm successfully transmitted images through a single glass fiber. In 1951, A. C. S. van Heel of Holland and H. H. Hopkins and N. S. Kapany of England experimented with light transmission through bundles of fibers. Their studies led to the development of the flexible fiberscope, which is used extensively in the medical field. The laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) was invented in 1960. Advantages of Optical Fiber Cables 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Wider bandwidth and greater information capacity. Immunity to crosstalk. Immunity to static interference. Environment immunity. Safety and convenience. Lower transmission loss. Security. Durability and reliability. Economics.

Numerical aperture (NA) is closely related to acceptance angle and is the figure of merit commonly used to measure the magnitude of the acceptance angle. A step-index fiber has a central core with a uniform refractive index (i.e., constant density throughout). An outside cladding that also has a uniform refractive index surrounds the core; however, the refractive index of the cladding is less than that of the central core. Single-mode step-index fibers are the dominant fibers used in todays telecommunications and data networking industries. A single-mode stepindex fiber has a central core that is significantly smaller in diameter than any of the multimode cables. Multimode step-index fibers are similar to the single-mode step-index fibers except the center core is much larger with the multimode configuration. Graded-index fibers are characterized by a central core with a nonuniform refractive index. Thus, the cables density is maximum at the center and decrease gradually toward the outer edge. Power loss is often called attenuation and results in a reduction in the power of the light wave as it travels down the cable. Ultraviolet absorption is caused by valence electrons in the silica material from which fibers are manufactured. Infrared absorption is a result of photons of light that are absorbed by the atoms of the glass core molecules. Ion resonance absorption is caused by OH ions in the material. Chromatic distortion occurs only in fibers with a single mode of transmission. Radiation losses are caused mainly by small bends and kinks in the fiber. Mircobending occurs as a result of differences in the thermal contraction rates between the core and the cladding material. A microbend is a miniature bend or geometric imperfection along the axis of the fiber and represents a discontinuity in the fiber where Rayleigh scattering can occur. Microbending losses generally contribute less than 20% of the total attenuation in a fiber. Constant-radius bends are caused by excessive pressure and tension and generally occurs when fibers are bent during handling or installation. Modal dispersion (sometimes called pulse spreading) is caused by the difference in the propagation times of light rays that take different paths down a fiber. Bandwidth distance product (BDP) or Bandwidth length product (DLP) indicates what signal frequencies can be propagated through a given distance of fiber cable and is expressed mathematically as the product of distance and bandwidth (sometimes called linewidth). Coupling losses are caused by imperfect physical connections. Human eye can detect only those lightwaves between approximately 380 nm and 780 nm. Standard LEDs have spectral widths of 30 nm to 50 nm, while injection laser have spectral widths of only 1 nm to 3 nm (1 nm corresponds to a frequency of about 178 GHz). An LED is a p-n junction diode, usually made from a semiconductor material such as aluminum gallium-arsenide (AlGaAs) or galliumarsenide-phophide(GaAsP).

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cables 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Interfacing costs. Strength. Remote electrical power. Optical fiber cables are more susceptible to losses introduced by bending the cable. Specialized tools, equipment, and training.

Infrared. The band of light frequencies that is too high to be seen by the human eye with wavelengths ranging between 770 nm and 10^6 nm. Visible. The band of light frequencies to which the human eye will respond with wavelengths ranging between 390 nm and 770 nm. Ultraviolet. The band of light frequencies that are too low to be seen by the human eye with wavelengths ranging between 10 nm and 390 nm. The light source is either an infrared light-emitting diode (LED) or an injection laser diode (ILD). The light detector is generally a PIN (p-type-intrinsic-n-type) diode, and APD (avalanche photodiode), or a phototransistor. Plastic fiber are more flexible and, consequently, more rugged than glass. A phenomenon called stress corrosion or static fatigue can result if the glass fiber is exposed to long periods of high humidity. Photometry is the science of measuring only light waves that are visible to the human eye. Radiometry, on the other hand, measures light throughout the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Optical power is sometimes called radiant flux, which is equivalent to joules per second and is the same power that is measured electrically or thermally in watts.

Photons are particles that travel at the speed of light but at rest have no mass. Epitaxially grown LEDs are generally constructed of silicon-doped gallium-aresenide Heterojunction LEDs are made from a p-type semiconductor material of one set of atoms and an n-type semiconductor material from another set. With heterojunction devices, light is emitted from the edge of the material and are therefore often called edge emitters. Burrus and Dawson of Bell Laboratories developed the etched-well LED. The mirrorlike ends trap the photons in the active region and, as they reflect back and forth, stimulate free electrons to recombine with holes at a higher-than-normal energy level. This process is called lasing. A PIN diode is a depletion-layer photodiode and is probably the most common device used as a light detector in fiber-optic communications systems. The energy gap for silicon is 1.12 eV. An APD is a pipn structure. APDs are more sensitive than PIN diodes and require less additional amplification. The disadvantages of APDs are relatively long transit times and additional internally generated noise due to the avalanche multiplication factor. Responsivity. A measure of the conversion efficiency of the photodetector. It is the ratio of the output current of the photodiode to the input optical power and has the unit of amperes per watt. Dark current. The leakage current that flows through a photodiode with no light input. Thermally generated carriers in the diode cause dark current. Transit time. The time it takes a light-induced carrier to travel across the depletion region of a semiconductor. Spectral response. The range of wavelength values that a given photodiode will respond. Light sensitivity. The minimum optical power a light detector can receive and still produce a usable electrical output signal. Laser is an acronym for light amplification stimulated by the emission of radiation. Uranium lasers were developed in 1960 along with other rare-earth materials. Also in 1960, A. Javin of Bell Laboratories developed the helium laser. Semiconductor lasers (injection laser diodes) were manufactured in 1962 by General Electric, IBM, and Lincoln Laboratories. Gas lasers. Gas lasers use a mixture of helium and neon enclosed in a glass tube. Liquid lasers. Liquid lasers use organic dyes enclosed in a glass tube for an active medium. Soild lasers. Solid lasers use a solid, cylindrical crystal, such as ruby, for the active medium. Semiconductor lasers. Semiconductor lasers are made semiconductor p-n junctions and are commonly called ILDs. from

Electromagnetic Wave Propagation

Free-space propagation of electromagnetic waves is often called radio frequency (RF) propagation or simply radio propagation. An electromagnetic wave is electrical energy that has escaped into free space. Electromagnetic waves travel in a straight line at approximately the speed of light and are made up of magnetic and electric fields that are at right angles of each other and at right angles to the direction of propagation. The essential properties of radio waves are frequency, intensity, direction of travel, and plane of polarization. Radio waves are a form of electromagnetic radiation similar to light and heat. The polarization of a plane electromagnetic wave is simply the orientation of the electric field vector in respect to the surface of the Earth. If the polarization remains constant, it is described as linear polarization. Horizontal polarization and vertical polarization are two forms of linear polarization. If the electric field is propagating parallel to the Earths surface, the wave is said to be horizontally polarized. If the electric field is propagating perpendicular to the Earths surface, the wave is said to be vertically polarized. If the polarization vector rotates 360 as the wave moves one wavelength through space and the field strength is equal at all angels of polarization, the wave is described as having circular polarization. When the field strength varies with change in polarization, this is described as elliptical polarization. A ray is a line drawn along the direction of propagation of an electromagnetic wave. Rays are used to show the relative direction of electromagnetic wave propagation. A wavefront shows a surface of constant phase of electromagnetic waves. A wavefront is formed when points of equal phase on rays propagated from the same source are joined together A point source is a single location from which rays propagate equally in all directions (an isotropic source). The magnetic field is an invisible force field produced by a magnet, such as a conductor when current is flowing through it. Electric fields are also invisible force fields produced by a difference in voltage potential between two conductors. Permittivity is the dielectric constant of the material separating the two conductors (i.e., the dielectric insulator). The permittivity of air or free space is approximately 8.85 X 10^-12 F/m. The rate at which energy passes through a given surface area in free space is called power density. Therefore, power density is energy per unit time per unit of area and is usually given in watts per square meter. Field intensity is the intensity of the electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave propagating in free space. The characteristic impedance of a lossless transmission medium is equal to the square root of the ratio of its magnetic permeability to its electric permittivity. Isotropic radiator is a point source that radiates power at a constant rate uniformly in all directions.

Free space is vacuum, so no loss of energy occurs as a wave propagates through it. As waves propagate through free space, however, they spread out, resulting in a reduction in power density. This is called attenuation and occurs in free space as well as the Earths atmosphere. Since Earths atmosphere is not a vacuum, it contains particles that can absorb electromagnetic energy. This type of reduction of power is called absorption loss and does not occur in wave traveling outside Earths atmosphere. The reduction in power density with distance is equivalent to a power loss and is commonly called wave attenuation. The reduction in power density due to the inverse square law presumes free-space propagation (a vacuum or nearly a vacuum) and is called wave attenuation. The reduction in power density due to nonfree-space propagation is called absorption. Water vapor causes significant attenuation of electromagnetic waves at the higher frequencies. The first absorption band due to water vapor peak at approximately 22GHz, and the first absorption band caused by oxygen peaks at approximately 60 GHz. The effect of rain on electromagnetic wave propagation is insignificant below approximately 6 GHz. Refraction can be thought of as bending, reflection as bouncing, diffraction as scattering, and interference as colliding. Refraction is sometimes referred to as the bending of the radio-wave path. Electromagnetic refraction is actually the changing of direction of an electromagnetic ray as it passes obliquely from one medium into another with different an electromagnetic ray as it passes obliquely form one medium into another with different velocities of propagation. Refraction occurs whenever a radio wave passes from one medium into another medium of different density. The angle of incidence is the angle formed between the incident wave and the nominal, and the angle of refraction is the angle formed between the refracted wave and the normal. The refractive index is simply the ratio of the velocity of propagation of a light ray in free space to the velocity of propagation of a light ray in a given material. Refraction also occurs when a wavefront propagates in a medium that has a density gradient that is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Electromagnetic reflection occurs when an incident wave strikes a boundary of two media and some or all of the incident power does not enter the second material. The ratio of the reflected to the incident voltage intensities is called the reflection coefficient. The portion of the total incident power that is not reflected is called the power transmission coefficient or simply the transmission coefficients. Reflection also occurs when the reflective surface is irregular or rough; however, such a surface may destroy the shape of the wavefront. When an incident wavefront strikes an irregular surface, it is randomly scattered in many directions. Such a condition is called diffuse refection, whereas reflection from a perfectly smooth surface is called specular (mirrorlike) reflection.

Surfaces that fall between smooth and irregular are called semirough surface. The Rayleigh criterion states that a semi rough surface will reflect as if it were a smooth surface whenever the cosine of the angle of incidence is greater than ^/8d, where d is the depth of the surface irregularity and ^ is the wavelength of the incident wave. Diffraction is defined as the modulation or redistribution of energy within a wavefront when it passes near the edge of an opaque object. Diffraction is the phenomenon that allows light or radio waves to propagate (peek) around corners. Huygenss principle states that every point on a given spherical wavefront can be considered as a secondary point source of electromagnetic waves from which other secondary waves (wavelets) are radiated outward. Diffraction occurs around the edge of the obstacle, which allows secondary waves to sneak around the corner of the obstacle into what is called the shadow zone. Radio-wave interference occurs when two or more electromagnetic waves combine in such a way that system performance is degraded. Refraction, reflection, and diffraction are categorized as geometric optics, which means that their behavior is analyzed primarily in terms of rays and wavefronts. Interference, on the other hand, is subject to the principle of linear superposition of electromagnetic waves and occurs whenever two or more waves simultaneously occupy the same point in space. The principle of linear superposition states that the total voltage intensity at a given point in space is the sum of the individual wave vectors. Electromagnetic waves traveling within Earths atmosphere are called terrestrial waves, and communications between two or more points on Earth is called terrestrial radio communications. Direct and ground-reflected waves together are called space waves. The cumulative sum of the direct, ground-reflected, and surface waves is sometimes referred to as the ground wave. At frequencies below approximately 2 MHz, surface waves provide the best coverage because ground losses increase rapidly with frequency. Sky waves are used for high-frequency applications, and space waves are used for very high frequencies and above. A surface wave is an Earth-guided electromagnetic wave that travels over the surface of Earth. Ground waves must be vertically polarized because the electric field in a horizontally polarized wave would be parallel to Earths surface, and such waves would be short-circuited by the conductivity of the ground. Surface waves propagation is commonly used for ship-to-ship and shipto-shore communications, for radio navigation, and for maritime mobile communications. Surface waves are used at frequencies as low as 15 KHz. Ground waves are relatively unaffected by changing atmospheric conditions. Ground waves require a relatively high transmission power. Space wave propagation with direct waves is commonly called line of sight (LOS) transmission. The curvature of Earth presents a horizon to space wave propagation commonly called the radio horizon. The radio horizon is approximately four-thirds that of the optical horizon.

Refraction is caused by the troposphere because of changes in its density, temperature, water vapor content, and relative conductivity. A special condition called duct propagation occurs when the density of the lower atmosphere is such that electromagnetic waves are trapped between it and Earths surface. Electromagnetic waves that are directed above the horizon level are called sky waves. Typically, sky waves are radiated in a direction that produces a relatively large angle with reference to Earth. Sky wave propagation is sometimes called ionospheric propagation. The ionosphere is the region of space located approximately 50 km to 400 km (30 mi to 250 mi) above Earths surface. Reducing the dielectric constant increases the velocity of propagation and causes electromagnetic waves to bend away from the regions of high electron density toward regions of low electron density. The higher the ion density, the more refraction. The D layer is the lowest layer of the ionosphere and is located approximately between 30 miles and 60 miles (50 km to 100 km) above Earths surface. The amount of ionization in the D layer depends on the altitude of the sun above the horizon. Therefore, it disappears at night. The D layer reflects VLF and LF waves and absorbs MF and HF waves. The E layer is located approximately between 60 miles and 85 miles (100 km to 140 km) above Earths surface. The E layer is sometimes called the Kennelly-Heaviside layer after the two scientists who discovered it. The E layer has its maximum density at approximately 70 miles at noon, when the sun is at its highest point. The sporadic E layer is caused by solar flares and sunspot activity. Frequencies above the UHF range are virtually unaffected by the ionosphere because of their extremely short wavelengths. Critical frequency is defined as the highest frequency that can be propagated directly upward and still be returned to Earth by the ionosphere. A measurement technique called ionospheric sounding is sometimes used to determine the critical frequency. Virtual height is the height above Earths surface from which a refracted wave appears to have been reflected. The maximum usable frequency (MUF) is the highest frequency that can be used for sky wave propagation between two specific points on Earths surface. Skip distance is defined as the minimum distance from a transmit antenna that a sky wave at a given frequency will be returned to Earth. The area between where the surface waves are completely dissipated and the point where the first sky wave returns to Earth is called the quiet, or skip zone because in this area there is no reception. Free-space path loss is often defined as the loss incurred by an electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a straight line through a vacuum with no absorption or reflection of energy from nearby objects. Fading can be caused by natural weather disturbances, such as rainfall, snowfall, fog, hail and extremely cold air over a warm Earth. Fading can also be caused by man-made disturbances, such as irrigation, of from multiple transmission paths, irregular Earth surfaces, and varying terrains.

Antennas and Waveguides

An antenna is metallic conductor system capable of radiating and capturing electromagnetic energy. Antennas are used to interface transmission lines to the atmosphere, the atmosphere to transmission lines, or both. A waveguide is a special type of transmission line that consists of a conducting metallic tube through which high-frequency electromagnetic energy is propagated. A waveguide is used to efficiently interconnect high-frequency electromagnetic waves between an antenna and a transceiver. Radio waves are electrical energy that has escaped into free space in the form of transverse electromagnetic waves. The plane parallel to the mutually perpendicular lines of the electric and magnetic fields is called the wavefront. The radiation efficiency is the ratio of radiated to reflected energy. Basic quarter-wave antenna or a vertical monopole (sometimes called a Marconi antenna), the conductors are spread out in a straight line to a total length of one-quarter wavelength. A half-wave dipole is called a Hertz antenna. A basic antenna is a passive reciprocal device. Active antennas are nonreciprocal (i.e., they either transmit or receive but not both). A special coupling device called a diplexer can be used to direct the transmit and receive signals and provide the necessary isolation. A radiation pattern is a polar diagram or graph representing field strengths or power densities at various angular positions relative to an antenna. If the radiation pattern is plotted in terms of electric field strength or power density, it is called an absolute radiation pattern. If it plots field strength or power density with respect to the value at a reference point, it is called a relative radiation pattern. The primary beam in a 90 direction is called the major lobe. Minor lobes represent undesired radiation or reception. Because the major lobe propagates and receives the most energy, that lobe is called the front lobe (the front of the antenna). Lobes adjacent to the front lobe are called side lobes (the 180 minor lobe is a side lobe), and lobes in a direction exactly opposite the front lobe are called back lobes. The term near field or induction field refers to the field pattern that is close to the antenna and the term far field or radiation field refers to the field pattern that is at great distance. Radiation resistance is an ac antenna resistance and is equal to the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the square of the current at its feedpoint. Radiation resistance is the resistance that, if it replaced the antenna, would dissipate exactly the same amount of power that the antenna radiates. Antenna efficiency is the ratio of the power radiated by an antenna to the sum of the power radiated and the power dissipated or the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the total input power.

Directive gain is the ratio of the power density radiated in a particular direction to the power density radiated to the same point by a reference antenna, assuming both antennas are radiating the same amount of power. Power gain is the same as directive gain except that the total power fed to the antenna is used. EIRP or simply ERP (effective radiated power) is the equivalent power that an isotropic antenna would have to radiate to achieve the same power density in the chosen direction at a given point as another antenna. Power gain is the natural parameter for describing the increased power density of a transmitted signal due to the directional properties of the transmiting antenna, a related quantity called capture area is a more natural parameter for describing the reception properties of an antenna. The polarization of an antenna refers simply to the orientation of the electric field radiated from it. Antenna beamwidth is simply the angular separation between the two half-power (-3 dB) points on the major lobe of an antennas plane radiation pattern, usually taken in one of the principal planes. Antenna gain is inversely proportional to beamwidth. Antenna bandwidth is vaguely defined as the frequency range over which antenna operation is satisfactory. The point on the antenna where the transmission line is connected is called the antenna input terminal or simply the feedpoint. The feedpoint presents an ac load to the transmission line called the antenna input impedance. Antenna input impedance is simply the ratio of the antennas input voltage to input current. The simplest type of antenna is the elementary doublet. The elementary doublet is an electrically short dipole and is often referred to simply as a short dipole, elementary dipole, or Hertzian dipole. An elementary doublet has uniform current throughout its length. The linear half-wave dipole is one of the most widely used antennas at frequencies above 2 MHz. The half-wave dipole is generally referred to as a Hertz antenna after Heinrich Hertz, who was the first to demonstrate the existence of electromagnetic waves. A Hertz antenna is a resonant antenna. That is, it is a multiple of quarterwavelengths long and open circuited at the far end. In Earths atmosphere, wave propagation is affected by antenna orientation, atmospheric absorption, and ground effects, such as reflection. A monopole (single pole) antenna one-quarter wavelength long, mounted vertically with the lower end either connected directly to ground or grounded through the antenna coupling network, is called a Marconi antenna. A counterpoise is a wire structure placed below the antenna and erected above the ground. A counterpoise is a form of capacitive ground system; capacitance is formed between the counterpoise and Earths surface. A Marconi antenna has the obvious advantage over a Hertz antenna of being only half as long. The disadvantage of a Marconi antenna is that it must be located close to the ground.

It is possible to increase the electrical length of an antenna by a technique called loading. When an antenna is loaded, its physical length remains unchanged, although its effective electrical length is increased. A loading coil effectively increases the radiation resistance of the antenna by approximately 5 ohms. With top loading, a metallic array that resembles a spoked wheel is placed on top of the antenna. The wheel increases the shunt capacitance to ground, reducing the overall antenna capacitance. Top loading is awkward for mobile applications. An antenna array is formed when two or more antenna elements are combined to form a single antenna. An antenna element is an individual radiator, such as half-or quarterwave dipole. The elements are physically placed in such a way that their radiation fields interact with each other, producing a total radiation pattern that is the vector sum of the individual fields. The purpose of an array is to increase the directivity of an antenna system and concentrate the radiated power within a smaller geographic area. Driven elements are directly connected to the transmission line and receive power from or are driven by the source. Parasitic elements are not connected to the transmission line; they receive energy only through mutual induction with a driven element or another parasitic element. Parasitic element that is longer than the driven element from which it receives energy is called a reflector. A reflector effectively reduces the signal strength in its direction and increases it in the opposite direction. Therefore, it acts as if it were a concave mirror. A parasitic element that is shorter than its associated driven element is called a director. A director increases field strength in its direction and reduces it in the opposite direction. Therefore, it acts as if it were a convex lens. A Broadside array is one of the simplest types of antenna arrays. It is made by simply placing several resonant dipoles of equal size in parallel with each other and in a straight line. Broadside array radiates at right angles to the plane of the array and radiates very little in the direction of the plane. Directivity can be increased even further by increasing the length of the array by adding more elements. An end-fire array is essentially the same element configuration as the broadside array except that the transmission line is not crisscrossed between elements. As a result, the fields are additive in line with the plane of the array. The rhombic antenna is a nonresonant antenna that is capable of operating satisfactorily over a relatively wide bandwidth, making it ideally suited for HF transmission (range 3 MHz to 30 MHz). Rhombic antenna has a maximum efficiency of 67%. Gains of over 40 (16 dB) have been achieved with rhombic antennas. The folded dipole is essentially a single antenna made up of two elements. A widely used antenna that commonly uses a folded dipole as the driven element is the Yagi-Uda antenna, named after two Japanese scientists who invented it and described its operation. A Yagi antenna is a linear array consisting of a dipole and two or more parasitic elements: one reflector and one or more directors.

The typical directivity for a Yagi is between 7 dB and 9 dB. Yagi antenna is commonly used for VHF television reception because of its wide bandwidth (the VHF TV band extends from 54 MHz to 216 MHz). A turnstile antenna is formed by placing two dipoles at right angles to each other, 90 out of phase. Turnstile antenna gains of 10 or more dB are common. A class of frequency-independent antennas called log periodics evolved from the initial work of V.H. Rumsey, J. D. Dyson, R.H. DuHamel, and D. E. Isbell at the University of Illinois in 1957. The primary advantage of log-periodic antennas is the independence of their radiation resistance and radiation pattern to frequency. Log-periodic antennas have bandwidth ratio of 10:1 or greater. Very often, TV antennas advertised as high-gain or high-performance antennas are log-period antennas. The most fundamental loop antenna is simply a single-turn coil of wire that is significantly shorter that one wavelength and carries RF current. Loops have an advantage over most other types of antennas in direction finding in that loops are generally much smaller and, therefore, more easily adapted to mobile communication applications. A phased array antenna is a group of antennas or a group of antenna array that, when connected together, function as a single antenna whose beamwidth and direction can be changed electronically without having to physically move any of the individual antennas or antenna elements within the array. The primary advantage of phased array antennas is that they eliminate the need for mechanically rotating antenna elements. The primary application of phased array is in radar when radiation pattern must be capable of being rapidly changed to follow a moving object. A helical antenna is a broadband VHF or UHF antenna that is ideally suited for applications for which radiating circular rather than horizontal or vertical polarized electromagnetic waves are required. With a helical antenna, there are two modes of propagation: normal and axial. In the normal mode, electromagnetic radiation is in a direction at right angles to the axis of the helix. In the axial mode, radiation is in the axial direction and produces a broadband, relatively directional pattern. Antennas used for UHF (0.3 GHz to 3 GHz) and microwave (1 GHz to 100 GHz) must be highly directive. Highly directional (high gain) antennas are used with point-to-point microwave systems. By focusing the radio energy into a narrow beam that can be directed toward the receiving antenna, the transmitting antenna can increase the effective radiated power by several orders of magnitude over that of nondirectional antenna. The most common type of antenna used for microwave transmission and reception is the parabolic reflector. Parabolic reflector antennas provide extremely high gain and directivity and are very popular for microwave radio and satellite communications links. Parabolic reflectors resemble the shape of a plane or dish; therefore, they are sometimes called parabolic dish antennas or simply dish antennas. Aperture number determines the angular aperture of the reflector, with indirectly determines how much of the primary radiation is reflected by the parabolic dish. A parabolic antenna consists of a paraboloid reflector illuminated with microwave energy radiated by a feed system located at the focus point.

Center feed, the primary antenna is placed at the focus. Energy radiated toward the reflector is reflected outward in a concentrated beam. Horn feed, the primary antenna is a small horn antenna rather than a simple dipole or dipole array. The horn is simply a flared piece of waveguide material that is placed at the focus and radiates a somewhat directional pattern toward the parabolic reflector. When a propagating electromagnetic field reaches the mouth of the horn, it continues to propagate in the same general direction, except that, in accordance with Huygenss principle, it spreads latterly, and the wavefront eventually becomes spherical. The Cassegrain feed is named after an 18th-century astronomer and evolved directly from astronomical optical telescopes. The Cassegrain feed is commonly used for receiving extremely weak signals or when extremely long transmission lines or waveguide runs are required and it is necessary to place low-noise preamplifiers as close to the antenna as possible. A conical horn antenna consists of a cone that is truncated in a piece of circular waveguide. A waveguide is a hollow conductive tube, usually rectangular in cross section but sometimes circular or elliptical. A waveguide does not conduct current in the true sense but rather serves as a boundary that confines electromagnetic energy. The walls of the waveguide are conductors and, therefore, reflect electromagnetic energy from their surface. Rectangular waveguides are the most common form of waveguide. Group velocity is the velocity at which a wave propagates, and phase velocity is the velocity at which the wave changes phase. Phase velocity is the apparent velocity of a particular phase of the wave. Phase velocity is the velocity with which a wave changes phase in a direction parallel to a conducting surface, such as the walls of a waveguide. Group velocity is the velocity of a group of waves. Group velocity is the velocity at which information signals of any kind are propagated. It is also the velocity at which energy is propagated. The cutoff frequency is an absolute limiting frequency; frequencies above the cutoff frequency will not be propagated by the waveguide. Conversely, waveguides have a maximum wavelength that they can propagate, called the cutoff wavelength. The cutoff wavelength is defined as the smallest free-space wavelength that is just unable to propagate in the waveguide. In other words, only frequencies with wavelengths less than the cutoff wavelength can propagate down the waveguide. Electromagnetic waves travel down a configurations called propagation modes. waveguide in different

A ridged waveguide has more loss per unit length than a rectangular waveguide. A flexible waveguide consists of spiral-wound ribbon of brass or copper. A flexible waveguide is also used extensively in microwave test equipment.

Reactive stubs are used in waveguides for impedance transforming and impedance matching just as they are in parallel-wire transmission lines. Short-circuited waveguide stubs are used with waveguides in the same manner that they are used in transmission lines. Rectangular waveguides are by far the most common; however, circular waveguides are used in radar and microwave applications when it is necessary or advantageous to propagate both vertically and horizontally polarized waves in the same waveguide.

Telephone Instruments and Signals

Anyone who uses a telephone or a data modem on a telephone circuit is part of a global communications network called the public telephone network (PTN). The simplest and most straightforward form of telephone service is called plain old telephone service(POTS), which involves subscribers accessing the public telephone network through a pair of wires called the local subscriber loop (or simply local loop). The local loop is the most fundamental component of a telephone circuit. A local loop is simply an unshielded twisted-pair transmission line (cable pair), consisting of two insulated conductors twisted together. The insulating material is generally a polyethylene plastic coating, and the conductor is most likely a pair of 116- to 26- gauge copper wire. The subscriber loop provides the means to connect a telephone set at a subscribers location to the closest telephone office, which is commonly called an end office, local exchange office, or central office. Telephone, an apparatus for reproducing sound, especially that of the human voice (speech), at a great distance, by means of electricity; consisting of transmitting and receiving instruments connected by a line or wire which conveys the electric current. Speech is sound in motion. The basic telephone set is a simple analog transceiver designed with the primary purpose of converting speech or acoustical signals to electrical signals. The first telephone set that combined a transmitter and receiver into a single handheld unit was introduced in 1878 and called the Butterstamp telephone. Sidetone helps prevent the speaker from talking too loudly. RJ stands for registered jacks and is sometimes described as RJ-XX. RJ-11 is the most common telephone jack in use today and can have up to six conductors. The telephone ringer has been around since August 1, 1878, when Thomas Watson filed for the first ringer patent. The on/off hook circuit (sometimes called a switch hook) is nothing more than a simple single-throw, double-pole (STDP) switch placed across the tip and ring. Equalizers are combinations of passive components (resistors, capacitors, and so on) that are used to regulate the amplitude and frequency response of the voice signals. The speaker converts electrical signals received from the local loop to acoustical signals (sound waves) that can be heard and understood by a human being. The microphone converts acoustical signals in the form of sound pressure waves from the caller to electrical signals that are transmitted into the telephone network through the local subscriber loop. The hybrid network (sometimes called a hybrid coil or duplex coil) in a telephone set is a special balanced transformer used to convert a twowire circuit (the local loop) into a four-wire circuit (the telephone set) and vice versa, thus enabling full duplex operation over a two-wire circuit. The dialing circuit enables the subscriber to output signals representing digits, and this enables the caller to enter the destination telephone number.

Call progress tone and call progress signals are acknowledgement and status signals that ensure the processes necessary to set up and terminate a telephone call are completed in an orderly and timely manner. Station signaling is the exchange of signaling messages over local loops between stations (telephone) and Telephone Company switching machines. Interoffice signaling is the exchange of signaling messages between switching machines. Alerting signals indicate a request for service, such as going off hook or ringing the destination telephone. Supervising signals provide call status information, such as busy or ring-back signals. Controlling signals provide information in the form of announcements, such as number changed to another number, a number no longer in service, and so on. Addressing signals provide the routing information, such as calling and called numbers. Siemens Company first introduced dial tone to the public switched telephone network in Germany in 1908. Dial tone is an audible signal comprised of two frequencies: 350 Hz and 440 Hz. Dual-tone multifrequency (DTMF) was first introduced in 1963 with 10 buttons in Western Electric 1500-type telephones. DTMF was originally called Touch-Tone. DTMF is a simple two-of-eight encoding scheme where each digit is presented by the linear addition of two frequencies. Multifrequency tones (codes) are similar to DTMF signals in that they involve the simultaneous transmission of two tones. MF codes are used to send information between the control equipment that sets up connections through a switch when more than one switch is involved in completing a call. The key pulse (KP) signal is a multifrequency control tone comprised of 1100 Hz plus 1700 Hz, ranging from 90 ms to 120 ms. The start (ST) signal is a multifrequency control tone used to indicate the end of a sequence of dialed digits. Dial pulsing (sometimes called rotary dial pulsing) is the method originally used to transfer digits from a telephone set to the local switch. The station busy signal is a two-tone signal comprised 480 Hz and 620 Hz. The equipment busy signal is sometimes called a congestion tone or a no-circuits-available tone. The equipment busy signal is sent from the switching machine back to the calling station whenever the system cannot complete the call because of equipment unavailability. This condition is called blocking and occurs whenever the system is overloaded and more calls are being placed than can be completed. The ringing signal is sent from a central office to a subscriber whenever there is an incoming call. The purpose of the ringing signal is to ring the bell in the telephone set to alert the subscriber that there is an incoming call. If there is no bell in the telephone set, the ringing signal is used to trigger another audible mechanism, which is usually a tone oscillator circuit. The ringing signal is nominally a 20-Hz, 90-Vrms signal that is on for 2 seconds and then off for 4 seconds.

The ring-back signal is sent back to the calling party at the same time the ringing signal is sent to the called party. The ring-back signal is an audible combination of two tones at 440 Hz and 480 Hz that are on for 2 seconds and then off for 4 seconds. Cordless telephones are simply telephones that operate without cords attached to the handset. Cordless telephones originated around 1980 and were quite primitive by todays standards. Caller ID (identification) is a service originally envisioned by AT&T in the early 1970s, although local telephone companies have only recently offered it. Caller ID enables the destination station of a telephone call to display the name and telephone number of the calling party before the telephone is answered. Paging system are simplex wireless communications system designed to alert subscriber of awaiting messages. The most recent paging protocol, FLEX, was developed in the 1990s. FLEX is designed to minimize power consumption in the portable pager by using a synchronous time-slotted protocol to transmit messages in precise time slots.

The Telephone Circuit

A telephone circuit is comprised of two or more facilities, interconnected in tandem, to provide a transmission path between a source and a destination. The local subscriber loop is the only facility required by all voice-band circuits, as it is the means by which subscriber locations are connected to the local telephone company. The local loop is a metallic transmission line comprised of two insulated copper wires (a pair) twisted together. The local loop is the primary cause of attenuation and phase distortion on a telephone circuit. Attenuation is an actual loss is signal strength, and phase distortion occurs when two or more frequencies undergo different amounts of phase shift. The transmission characteristics of a cable pair depend on the wire diameter, conductor spacing, dielectric constant of the insulator separating the wires, and the conductivity of the wire. Feeder cable (F1). The largest cable used in a local loop, usually 3600 pair of copper wire placed underground or in conduit. Serving area interface (SAI). A cross-connect point used to distribute the largest feeder cable into smaller distribution cables. Distribution cable (F2). A smaller version of a feeder cable containing less wire pairs. Subscriber or standard network interface (SNI). A device that serves as the demarcation point between local telephone company responsibility and subscriber responsibility for telephone service. Drop wire. The final length of cable pair that terminates at the SNI. Aerial. That portion of the local loop that is strung between poles. Distribution cable and drop-wire cross-connect point. The location where individual cable pairs within a distribution cable are separated and extended to the subscribers location on a drop wire. Loading, adding inductors periodically in series with the wire. The inductors are called loading coils. Loading coils placed in a cable decrease the attenuation, increase the line impedance, and improve transmission levels for circuits longer than 18,000 feet. Loading coils allowed local loops to extend three to four times their previous length. A bridge tap is an irregularity frequently found in cables serving subscriber locations. Bridge taps are unused sections of cable that are connected in shunt to a working cable pair, such as a local loop. Bridge taps were used for party lines to connect more than one subscriber to the same local loop. The lower the wire gauge, the larger the diameter, the less resistance, and the lower the attenuation. Transmission level point (TLP) is defined as the optimum level of a test tone on a channel at some point in a communications system. The transmission level (TL) at any point in a transmission system is the ratio in dB of the power of a signal at that point to the power the same signal would be at a 0-dBm transmission level point. Data level point (DLP) is a parameter equivalent to TLP except TLP is used for voice circuits, whereas DLP is used as a reference for data transmission. The DLP is always 13 dB below the voice level for the same point. dBmO is dBm referenced to a zero transmission level point (0 TLP).

rn (reference noise). rn is the dB value used as the reference for noise readings. Reference noise equals -90 dBm. dBrn is the dB level of noise with respect to reference noise ( -90 dBm). dBrn 3-kHz flat noise measurements are noise readings taken with a filter that has a flat frequency response from 30 Hz to 3 kHz. dBrncO is the amount of noise in dBrnc corrected to a 0 TLP. Psophometric noise weighting is used primarily in Europe. Psophometric weighting assumes a perfect receiver; therefore, its weighting curve corresponds to the frequency response of the human ear only. Private-line circuits are direct connections between two or more locations. Attenuation distortion is the difference in circuit gain experienced at a particular frequency with respect to the circuit gain of a reference frequency. This characteristic is sometimes referred to as frequency response, differential gain, and 1004-Hz deviation. Envelope delay distortion is an indirect method of evaluating the phase delay characteristics of a circuit. The process used to improve a basic telephone channel is called line conditioning. Line conditioning improves the high-frequency response of a message channel and reduces power loss. C-type conditioning specifies the maximum limits for attenuation distortion and envelope delay distortion. C-type conditioning pertains to the line impairments for which compensation can be made with filters and equalizers. Private switched networks are telephone systems provided by local telephone companies dedicated to a single customer, usually with a large number of stations. A private branch exchange (PBX) is a relatively low-capacity switching machine where the subscribers are generally limited to stations within the same building or building complex. Common-usage access lines and trunk circuits are required to interconnect two or more PBXs. Attenuation distortion is simply the frequency response of a transmission medium referenced to a 1004-Hz test tone. The time delay encountered by a signal as it propagates from a source to a destination is called propagation time, and the delay measured in angular units, such as degrees or radians, is called phase delay. The absolute phase delay is the actual time required for a particular frequency to propagate from a source to a destination through a communication channel. The difference between the absolute delays of all the frequencies is phase distortion. Envelope delay is the time required to propagate a change in an AM envelope through a transmission medium. The phase difference at the different carrier frequencies is envelope delay distortion. D-type conditioning neither reduces the noise on a circuit nor improves the signal-to-noise ratio. It simply sets the minimum requirements for signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio and nonlinear distortion. D-type conditioning is sometimes referred to as high-performance conditioning and can be applied to private-line data circuits in addition to either basic or C-conditioned requirements.

D1 conditioning specifies requirements for two-point circuits, and D2 conditioning specifies requirements for multipoint circuits. Nonlinear distortion is an example of correlated noise and is produced from nonlinear amplification. Two classifications of nonlinear distortion are harmonic distortion (unwanted multiples of the transmitted frequencies) and intermodulation distortion (cross products [sums and differences] of the transmitted frequencies, sometimes called fluctuation noise or cross-modulation noise). Harmonic distortion is measured by applying a singe-frequency test tone to a telephone channel. Loaded is a communications term that indicates the presence of a signal power comparable to the power of an actual message transmission. Impulse noise is characterized by high-amplitude peaks (impulses) of short duration having an approximately flat frequency spectrum. Impulse noise is the primary source of transmission errors in data circuits. A gain hit is a sudden, random change in the gain of a circuit resulting in a temporary change in the signal level. The primary cause of gain hits is noise transients (impulses) on transmission facilities during normal course of a day. A dropout is a decrease in circuit gain of more than 12 dB lasting longer than 4 ms. Dropouts are characteristics of temporary open-circuit conditions and are generally caused by deep fades on radio facilities or by switching delays. Phase hits (slips) are sudden, random changes in the phase of a signal. Phase hits, like gain hits, are caused by transients produced when transmission facilities are switched. Phase jitter is a form of incidental phase modulation-a continuous, uncontrolled variation in the zero crossings of a signal. Generally, phase jitter occurs at a 300-Hz rate or lower, and its primary cause is lowfrequency ac ripple in power supplies. Single-frequency interference is the presence of one or more continuous, unwanted tones within a message channel. The tones are called spurious tones and are often caused by crosstalk or cross modulation between adjacent channels in a transmission system due to system nonlinearities. Frequency shift is when the frequency of a signal changes during transmission. Phase intercept distortion occurs in coherent SSBSC systems, such as those using frequency-division multiplexing when the received carrier is not reinserted with the exact phase relationship to the received signal as the transmit carrier possessed. Two-wire transmission involves two wires (one for the signal and one for a reference or ground) or a circuit configuration that is equivalent to using only two wires. Two-wire circuits are ideally suited to simplex transmission, although they are often used for half- and full-duplex transmission. Four-wire transmission involves four wires (two for each direction-a signal and a reference) or a circuit configuration that is equivalent to using four wires. Four-wire circuits are ideally suited to full-duplex transmission, although they can operate in the half-duplex mode. Four-wire circuits are considerably less noisy, have less crosstalk, and provide more isolation between the two directions of transmission when operating in either the half- or the full duplex mode.

Two-wire circuits require less wire, less circuitry and, thus less money than their four-wire counterparts. When a two-wire circuit is connected to a four-wire circuit, as in a longdistance telephone call, and interface circuit called a hybrid, or terminating, set is used to affect the interface. The hybrid set is used to match impedances and to provide isolation between the two directions of signal flow. Echo cancellers eliminate the echo by electrically subtracting it from the original signal rather than disabling the amplifier in the return circuit. Crosstalk can be defined as any disturbance created in a communication channel by signals in other communications channels. Crosstalk is a potential problem whenever two metallic conductors carrying different signals are located in close proximity to each other. Nonlinear crosstalk is a direct result of nonlinear amplification in analog communication systems. Transmittance crosstalk is caused by inadequate control of the transfer characteristics or transmittance of networks. Electromagnetic coupling between two or more physically isolated transmission media is called coupling crosstalk. Standard telephone cable pairs have 20 twists per foot, whereas data circuits generally require more twists per foot. Near-end crosstalk (NEXT) is a crosstalk that occurs at the transmit end of a circuit and travels in the opposite direction as the signal in the disturbing channel. Far-end crosstalk (FEXT) occurs at the far-end receiver and is energy that travels in the same direction as the signal in the disturbing channel.

The Public Telephone Network

The public telephone companies are sometimes called service providers, as they lease equipment and provide services to other private companies, organizations, and government agencies. An instrument is any device used to originate and terminate calls and to transmit and receive signals into and out of the telephone network, such as a 2500-type telephone set, a cordless telephone, or a data modem. The instrument is often referred to as station equipment and the location of the instrument as the station. A subscriber is the operator or user of the instrument. Local loop is simply the dedicated cable facility used to connect and instrument at a subscribers station to the closest telephone office. A trunk circuit is similar to a local loop except trunk circuits are used to interconnect two telephone offices. An exchange is a central location where subscribers are interconnected, either temporarily or on a permanent basis. Switching machines are programmable matrices that provide temporary signal paths between two subscribers. Exchanges connected directly to local loops are often called local exchange was installed in 1878, only two years after the invention of the telephone. A central exchange is also called a central telephone exchange, central office (CO), central wire center, central exchange, central office exchange, or simply central. The first commercial telephone switchboard began operation in New Haven, Connecticut, on January 28, 1878, making the birth of the public switched telephone network. The switchboard served 21 telephones attached to only eight lines. The first local telephone exchanges were switchboards (sometimes called patch panels or patch boards) where manual interconnects were accomplished using patchcords and jacks. An automated switching system is a system of sensors, switches, and other electrical and electronic devices that allows subscribers to give instructions directly to the switch without having to go through an operator. A circuit is simply the path over which voice, data, or video signals propagate. A circuit switch is a programmable matrix that allows circuits to be connected to one another. Interoffice call are calls placed between two stations that are connected to different local exchange. Interoffice calls are sometimes called interswitch calls. A tandem office is an exchange without any local loops connected to it (tandem meaning in conjunction with or associated with). A tandem switch is called a switchers switch, and trunk circuits that terminate in tandem switches are appropriately called tandem trunks or sometimes intermediate trunks. The North American Telephone Numbering Plan (NANP) was established to provide a telephone numbering system for the United States, Mexico, and Canada that would allow any subscriber in North America to direct dial virtually any other subscriber without the assistance of an operator. Comitee Consultatif International Telephonique et Telegraphique (CCITT)

Common Channel Signaling System No.7 (i.e., SS7 or C7) is a global standard for telecommunication defined by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) Telecommunications Sector (ITU-T). The SS7 standard defines the procedures and protocol necessary to exchange information over the PSTN using a separate digital signaling network to provide wireless (cellular) and wireline telephone call setup, routing, and control. Signaling refers to the exchange of information between call components required to provide and maintain service. SS6, based on a proprietary, high-speed data communications network, evolved into Signaling System No. 7 (SS7), which is now the telephone industry standard for most of the civilized word. The signaling network for the telephone system is SS7, which is used to determine how subscribers voice and data signals are routed through the network. The switching network is the portion of the telephone network that actually transports the voice and data from one subscriber to another. The term point-of-presence is a telecommunications term that describes the legal boundaries for the responsibility of maintaining equipment and transmission lines.

Cellular Telephone Concepts

Mobile telephone services began in the 1940s and were called MTSs (mobile telephone systems or sometimes manual telephone systems, as all calls were handled by an operator). MTS system utilized frequency modulation and were generally assigned a single carrier frequency in the 35-MHz to 45-MHz range that was used by both the mobile unit and the base station. Large cells (called macrocells) typically have a radius between 1 mile and 15 miles with base station transmit powers between 1 W and 6 W. The smallest cells (called microcells) typically have a radius of 1500 feet or less with base station transmit power between 0.1 W and 1 W. Microcells are used most often in high-denstiy areas such as found in large cities and inside buildings. Omnidirectional antennas are normally used in center-excited cells, and sectored directional antennas are used in edge- and corner-excited cells. Frequency reuse is the process in which the same set of frequencies (channels) can be allocated to more than one cell, provided the cells are separated by sufficient distance. Two cells using the same set of frequencies are called co-channel cells, and the interference between them is called co-channel interference. Adjacent-channel interference occurs when transmissions from adjacent channels interfere with each other. Adjacent-channel interference result from imperfect filters in receivers that allow nearby frequencies to enter the receiver. Adjacent-channel interference is most prevalent when an adjacent channel is transmitting very close to a mobile units receiver at the same time the mobile unit is trying to receive transmissions from the base station on an adjacent frequency. This is called the near-far-effect and is most prevalent when a mobile unit is receiving a weak signal from the base station. Cell splitting is when the area of a cell, or independent component coverage areas of a cellular system, is further divided, thus creating more cell areas. The purpose of cell splitting is to increase the channel capacity and improve the availability and reliability of a cellular telephone network. The point when a cell reaches maximum capacity occurs when the number of subscribers wishing to place a call at any given time equals the number of channels in the cells. This is called the maximum traffic load of the cell. Cell splitting is the resizing or redistribution of cell areas. In essence, cell splitting is the process of subdividing highly congested cells into smaller cells each will their own base station and set of channel frequencies. Decreasing co-channel interference while increasing capacity by using directional antennas is called sectoring. As a rule, antennas located 30 meters above the ground require a separation of eight wavelengths, and antennas located 50 meters above the ground require a separation of 11 wavelengths. Segmentation divides a group of channels into smaller groupings or segments of mutually exclusive frequencies; cell sites, which are within the reuse distance, are assigned their own segment of the channel group. Segmentation is a means of avoiding co-channel interference, although it lowers the capacity of a cell by enabling reuse inside the reuse distance, which is normally prohibited.

Dualization is a means of avoiding full-cell splitting where the entire area would otherwise need to be segmented into smaller cells. The radio network is defined by a set of radio-frequency transceivers located within each of the cells. The locations of these radio-frequency transceivers are called base stations. Roaming is when a mobile unit moves from one cell to another-possibly form one companys service area into another companys service area. The transfer of a mobile unit from one base stations control to another base stations control is called a handoff (or handover). A connection that is momentarily broken during the cell-to-cell transfer is called a hand handoff. A flawless hand-off is called a soft handoff and normally takes approximately 200 ms, which is imperceptible to voice telephone users, although the delay may be disruptive when transmitting data.

Cellular Telephone Systems

Simultaneous transmission in both directions is a transmission mode called full duplex (FDX) or simply duplexing. A special device called a duplexer is used in each mobile unit and base station to allow simultaneous transmission and reception on duplex channels. Transmissions from base stations to mobile units are called forward links, whereas transmission form mobile unit to base stations are called reverse links. Standard cellular telephone subscribers access the AMPS system using a technique called frequency-division multiple accessing (FDMA). The mobile identification number (MIN) is a 34-bit code, which in the United States represents the standard 10-digit telephone number. Another identification code used with AMPS is the electronic serial number (ESN), which is a 32-bit binary code permanently assigned to each mobile unit. The system identifier (SID) is a 15-bit binary code issued by the FCC to an operating company when it issues it a license to provide AMPS cellular service to an area. The Personal Communication System (PCS) is a relatively new class of cellular telephony based on the same basic philosophies as standard cellular telephone systems (CTSs), such as AMPS. Home location register (HLR) is a database that stores information about the user, including home subscription information and what supplementary service the user is subscribed to, such as call waiting, call hold, call forwarding, and call conferencing (three-way calling). Visitor location register (VLR) is a database that stores information about subscribers in a particular MTSO serving area, such as whether the unit is on or off and whether any of the supplementary services are activated or deactivated. Equipment identification registry (EIR) is a database that stores information pertaining to the identification and type of equipment that exists in the mobile unit. The available mode allows all calls to pass through the network to the subscriber except for a minimal number of telephone numbers that can be blocked. The screen mode is the PCS equivalent to caller ID. With the screen mode, the name of the calling party appears on the mobile units display, which allows PCS users to screen calls. With the private mode, all calls except those specified by the subscriber are automatically forwarded to forwarding destination without ringing the subscribers handset.

Introduction to Data Communications and Networking

In the data communications world, data generally are defined as information that is stored in digital form. Data communications is the process of transferring digital information (usually in binary form) between two or more points. Information is defined as knowledge or intelligence. Thus, data communications can be summarized as the transmission, reception, and processing of digital information. A network is a set of devices (sometimes called nodes or stations) interconnected by media links. In 1833, Carl Friedrich Gauss developed an unusual system based on a five-by-five matrix representing 25 letters (I and J were combined). The first successful (and practical) data communications system was invented by Samuel F. B. Morse in 1832 called the telegraph. In 1840, Morse secured an American patent for the telegraph, and in 1844 the first telegraph line was established between Baltimore and Washington, D. C., with the first message conveyed over this system being What hath God wrought! In 1874, Emile Baudot invented a telegraph multiplexer, which allowed signals form up to six different telegraph machines to be transmitted simultaneously over a single wire. J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchley at the University of Pennsylvania are given credit by some for beginning modern-day computing when they developed the ENIAC computer on February 14, 1946. The first general-purpose computer was an automatic sequencecontrolled calculator developed jointly by Harvard University and International Business Machines (IBM) Corporation. The UNIVAC computer, built in 1951 by Remington Rand Corporation, was the first mass-produced electronic computer. The internet is a public data communications network used by millions of people all over the world to exchange business and personal information. The Internet began to evolve in 1969 at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). Internets are private data communications networks used by many companies to exchange information among employees and resources. A data communications network is any system of computers, computer terminals, or computer peripheral equipment used to transmit and/or receive information between two or more locations. Network architecture is a set of equipments, transmission media, and procedures that ensures that a specific sequence of events occurs in a network in the proper order to produce the intended results. With broadcast networks, all stations and devices on the network share a single communications channel. Point-to-point networks have only two stations. Therefore, no addresses are needed. A protocol is a set of customs, rules, or regulations dealing with formality or precedence, such as diplomatic or military protocol. Data communications protocols are sets of rules governing the orderly exchange of data within the network or a portion of the network, whereas network architecture is a set of layers and protocols that govern the operation of the network. Connection-oriented protocols are designed to provide a high degree of reliability for data moving through the network.

Connectionless protocols are protocols where data are exchanged in an unplanned fashion without prior coordination between endpoints Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data within the message, which includes the sequence in which the data are sent. Data communications standards are guidelines that have been generally accepted by the data communications industry. Proprietary standards are generally manufactured and controlled by one company. Open system standards, any company can produce compatible equipment or software; however, often a royalty must be paid to the original company. Created in 1946, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is the international organization for standardization on a wide range of subjects. The ISO is a voluntary, nontreaty organization whose membership is comprised mainly of members from the standards committees of various governments throughout the world. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is an international professional organization founded in the United States and is comprised of electronics, computer, and communications engineers. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is the official standards agency for the United States and is the U.S. voting representative for the ISO. The Electronics Industries Association (EIA) is a nonprofit U.S. trade association that establishes and recommends industrial standards. The Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) is the leading trade association in the communications and information technology industry. The 1957, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), the research arm of the Department of Defense, was created in response to the Soviet Unions launching of Sputnik. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is a large international community of network designers, operators, venders, and researchers concerned with the evolution of the Internet architecture and the smooth operation of the Internet. The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) promotes research of importance to the evolution of the future Internet by creating focused, long-term and small research groups working on topics related to Internet protocols, applications, architecture, and technology. Open systems interconnection (OSI) is the name for a set of standards for communicating among computers. Physical layer. The physical layer is the lowest level of the OSI hierarchy and is responsible for the actual propagation of unstructured data bits (1s and 0s) through a transmission medium, which includes how bits are represented, the bit rate, and how bit synchronization is achieved. Connectivity devices connect devices on cabled networks. An example of a connectivity device is a hub. A hub is a transparent device that samples the incoming bit stream and simply repeats it to the other devices connected to the hub. Data-link layer. The data-link layer is responsible for providing error-free communications across the physical link connecting primary and secondary stations (nodes) within a network (sometimes referred to as hop-to-hop delivery), The data-link layer provides the final framing of the information signal, provides synchronization, facilitates the orderly flow of data between

nodes, outlines procedures for error detection and correction, and provides the physical addressing information. Network layer. The network layer provides details that enable data to be routed between devices in an environment using multiple networks, subnetworks, or both. Networking components that operate at the network layer include routers and their software. Transport layer. The transport layer controls and ensures the end-to-end integrity of the data message propagated through the network between two devices, which provides for the reliable, transparent transfer of data between two endpoints. Transport layer responsibilities include message routing, segmenting, error recovery, and two types of basic services to an upper-layer protocol: connectionless oriented and connectionless. Session layer. The session layer is responsible for network availability (i.e., data storage and processor capacity). Session layer protocols provide the logical connection entities at the application layer. Presentation layer. The presentation layer provides independence to the application processes by addressing any code or syntax conversion necessary to present the data to the network in a common communication format. Application layer. The application layer is the highest layer in the hierarchy and is analogous to the general manager of the network by providing access to the OSI environment. A station is simply an endpoint where subscribers gain access to the circuit. A station is sometimes called a node, which is the location of computers, computer terminals, workstations, and other digital computing equipment. A two-point configuration involves only two locations or stations, whereas a multipoint configuration involves three or more stations. A multipoint network is generally used to interconnect a single mainframe computer (host) to many personal computers or to interconnect many personal computers. Simplex. In the simplex (SX) mode, data transmission is unidirectional; information can be sent in only one direction. Half duplex. In the half (HDX) mode, data transmission is possible in both directions but not at the same time. Full duplex. In the full-duplex (FDX) mode, transmission are possible in both directions simultaneously, but they must be between the same two stations. Full/full duplex. In the full/full duplex (F/FDX) mode, transmission is possible in both directions at the same time but not between the same two stations. Servers are computers that hold shared files, programs, and the network operating system. File servers allow users to access and manipulate disk resources stored on other computers. Clients are computers that access and use the network and shared network resources. Transmission media are the facilities used to interconnect computers in a network, such as twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, and optical fiber cable. A local operating system (LOS) allows personal computers to access files, print to a local printer, and have and use one or more disk and CD drives that are located on the computer.

The network operating system (NOS) is a program that runs on computers and servers that allows the computers to communicate over a network. A peer-to-peer client/server network is one in which all computers share their resources, such as hard drives, printers, and son, with all the other computers on the network. In a dedicated client/server network, one computer is designated the server, and the rest of the computers are clients. Network topology describes the layout or appearance of a network-that is, how the computers, cables, and other components within a data communications network are interconnected, both physically and logically. The physical topology describes how the network is actually laid out, and the logical topology describes how data actually flow through the network. A point-to-point topology is used in data communications networks that transfer high-speed digital information between only two stations. A multipoint topology connects three or more stations through a single transmission medium. A star topology is a multipoint data communications network where remote stations are connected by cable segments directly to a centrally located computer called a hub, which acts like a multipoint connector. A bus topology is a multipoint data communications circuit that makes it relatively simple to control data flow between and among the computers because this configuration allows all stations to receive every transmission over the network. The bus topology is the simplest and most common method of interconnecting computers. A bus topology is sometimes called multidrop or linear bus and all stations share a common transmission medium. A ring topology is a multipoint data communications network where all stations are interconnected in tandem (series) to form a closed loop or circle. In a mesh topology, every station has a direct two-point communications link to every other station on the circuit. The mesh topology is sometimes called fully connected. A hybrid topology is simply combining two or more of the traditional topologies to form a larger, more complex topology. Local area networks (LANs) are typically privately owned data communications network in which 10 to 40 computer users share data resources with one or more file servers. LANs use a network operating system to provide two-way communications at bit rates typically in the range of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps and higher between a large variety of data communications equipment within a relatively small geographical area, such as in the same room, building, or building complex. A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a high-speed network similar to a LAN except MANs are designed to encompass larger areas, usually that of an entire city. MANs typically operate at speeds of 1.5 Mbps to 10 Mbps and range five miles to a few hundred miles in length. Wide area network (WAN) are the oldest type of data communications network that provide relatively slow-speed, long-distance transmission of data, voice, and video information over relatively large and widely dispersed geographical areas, such as a country or an entire continent.

WANs typically interconnect cities and states. WANs typically operate at bit rates from 1.5 Mbps to 2.4 Gbps and cover a distance of 100 to 1000 miles. Global area network (GAN) provide connects between countries around the entire globe. GANs operate from 1.5 Mbps to 100 Gbps and cover thousands of miles. A building backbone is a network connection that normally carries traffic between departmental LANs within a single company. A building backbone generally consists of a switch or a router that can provide connectivity to other networks, such as campus backbones, enterprise backbones, MANs, WANs, or GANs. A campus backbone is a network connection used to carry traffic to and from LANs located in various buildings on campus. A campus backbone normally uses optical fiber cables for the transmission media between buildings. An enterprise network includes some or all of the previously mentioned networks and components connected in a cohesive and manageable fashion. The term hierarchical simply means that the upper level protocols are supported by one or more lower-level protocols.

Fundamental Concepts of Data Communications

The Baudot code (sometimes called the Telex code) was the first fixedlength character code developed for machines rather than for people. A French postal engineer named Thomas Murray developed the Baudot code in 1875 and named the code after Emile Baudot, an early pioneer in telegraph printing. The Baudot code is a five-bit character code that was used primarily for low speed teletype equipment, such as the TWX/Telex system and radio teletype (RTTY). ASCII is the standard character set for source coding the alphanumeric character set that humans understand but computers do not (computers only understand 1s and 0s) ASCII is a seven-bit fixed-length character set. The extended binary-coded decimal interchange code (EBCDIC) is an eight-bit fixed-length character set developed in 1962 by the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM). With eight bits, 2^8, or 256, codes are possible, although only 139 of the 256 codes are actually assigned characters. A bar code is a series of vertical black bars separated by vertical white bars (called spaces). The widths of the bars and spaces along with their reflective abilities represent binary 1s and 0s, and combinations of bits identify specific items. Discrete code. A discrete bar code has spaces or gaps between characters. Continuous code. A continuous bar code does not include spaces between characters. 2D code. A 2D bar code stores data in two dimensions in contrast with a conventional linear bar code, which stores data along only one axis. Single-bit errors affect only one character within a message. A multiple-bit error is when two or more nonconsecutive bits within a given data string are in error. Multiple-bit errors can affect one or more characters within a message. A burst error is when two or more consecutive bits within a given data string are in error. Burst error can affect one or more characters within a message. Error detection is the process of monitoring data transmission and determining when errors have occurred. Duplicating each data unit for the purpose of detecting errors is a form of error detection called redundancy. Redundancy is an effective but rather costly means of detecting errors, especially with long messages. Vertical redundancy checking (VRC) is probably the simplest errordetection scheme and is generally referred to as character parity of simply parity. Checksum is another relatively simple form of redundancy error checking where each character has a numerical value assigned to it. Longitudinal redundancy checking (LRC) is a redundancy error detection scheme that uses parity to determine if a transmission error has occurred within a message and is therefore sometimes called message parity. Probably the most reliable redundancy checking technique for error detection is a convolutional coding scheme called cyclic redundancy checking (CRC).

A lost message is one that never arrives at the destination or one that arrives but is damaged to the extent that it is unrecognizable. A damaged message is one that is recognized at the destination but contains one or more transmission errors. Error-detecting codes include enough redundant information with each transmitted message to enable the receiver to determine when an error has occurred. Error-correcting codes include sufficient extraneous information along with each message to enable the receiver to determine when an error has occurred and which bit is in error. Retransmission, as the name implies, is when a receive station requests the transmit station to resend a message (or a portion of a message) when the message is received in error. Discrete ARQ uses acknowledgements to indicate the successful or unsuccessful reception of data. Continuous ARQ allows the destination station to asynchronously request the retransmission of a specific frame (or frames) of data and still be able to reconstruct the entire message once all frames have been successfully transported through the system. Forward error correction (FEC) is the only error-correction scheme that actually detects and corrects transmission errors when they are received without requiring a retransmission. The Hamming code is an error-correcting code used for correcting transmission errors in synchronous data streams. Hamming bits (sometimes called error bits) are inserted into a character at random locations. Character synchronization involves identifying the beginning and end of a character within a message. Asynchronous data transmission is sometimes called start-stop transmission because each data character is framed between start and stop bits. Synchronous data generally involves transporting serial data at relatively high speeds in groups of characters called blocks or frames. Data terminal equipments (DTE) can be virtually any binary digital device that generates, transmits, receives, or interprets data messages. Data communications equipment (DCE) is a general term used to describe equipment that interfaces data terminal equipment to a transmission channel, such as digital T1 carrier or an analog telephone circuit. UART is used for asynchronous transmission of serial data between a DTE and a DCE. A universal synchronous receiver/transmitter (USRT) is used for synchronous transmission of data between a DTE and a DCE. Asynchronous modems can be generally classified as low-speed voiceband modems, as they are typically used to transport asynchronous data The 103 modem is capable of full-duplex operation over a two-wire telephone line at bit rates up to 300 bps.

Data-Link Networks

Protocols

and

Data

Communications

A data-link protocol is a set of rules implementing and governing an orderly exchange of data between layer two devices, such as line control units and front-end processors. Enquiry/acknowledgement (ENQ/ACK) is a relatively simple data-linklayer line discipline that works best in simple network environment where there is no doubt as to which station is the intended receiver. A poll is a solicitation sent from the primary to a secondary to determine if the secondary has data to transmit. Flow control defines a set of procedures that tells the transmitting station how much data it can send before it must stop transmitting and wait for an acknowledgement from the destination station. With stop-and-wait flow control, the transmitting station sends one message frame and then waits for an acknowledgment before sending the next message frame. Character-oriented protocols interpret a frame of data as a group of successive bits combined into predefined patterns of fixed length, usually eight bits each. A bit-oriented protocol is a discipline for serial-by-bit information transfer over a data communications channel. XMODEM is a relatively simple data-link protocol intended for low-speed applications. With synchronous data-link protocols, remote stations can have more than one PC or printer. Binary synchronous communications (BSC) is a synchronous character-oriented data-link protocol developed by IBM. BSC is sometimes called bisync or bisynchronous communications. Synchronous data-link control (SDLC) is a synchronous bit-oriented protocol developed in the 1970s by IBM for use in system network architecture (SNA) environments. A public switched data network (PDN or PSDN) is a switched data communication network similar to the public telephone network except a PDN is designed for transferring data only. A permanent virtual circuit (PVC) is logically equivalent to a two-point dedicated private-line circuit except slower. A virtual call (VC) is logically equivalent to making a telephone call through the DDD network except no direct end-to-end connection is made. Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a relatively new data communications technology that uses a high-speed form of packet switching network for the transmission media. The topology or physical architecture of a LAN identifies how the stations (terminals, printers, modems, and so on) are interconnected. Star topology. The preeminent feature of the star topology is that each station is radially linked to a central node through a direct point-to-point connection. With a star configuration, a transmission from one station enters the central node, where it is retransmitted on all the outgoing links. Bus topology. In essence, the bus topology is a multipoint or multidrop circuit configuration where individual nodes are interconnected by a common, shared communications channel. Ring topology. With a ring topology, adjacent stations interconnected by repeaters in a closed-loop configuration. are

Baseband transmission formats are defined as transmission format that use digital signaling. In addition, baseband formats use the transmission medium as a single-channel device. Carrier sense, multiple access with collision detection. CSMA/CD is an access method used primarily with LANs configured in bus topology. Token passing is a network access method used primarily with LANs configured in a ring topology using either baseband or broadband transmission formats. Ethernet is a baseband transmission system designed in 1972 by Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs of the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC).

Microwave Radio Communications and System Gain

Microwaves are generally described as electromagnetic wave with frequencies that range from approximately 500 MHz to 300 GHz or more. On august 17, 1951, the first transcontinental microwave radio system began operation. Intrastate or feeder service microwave systems are generally categorized as short haul because they are used to carry information for relatively short distances. Long-haul microwave systems are those used to carry information for relatively long distances, such as interstate and backbone route applications. Microwave radios propagate signals through Earths atmosphere between transmitters and receivers often located on top of towers spaced about 15 miles to 30 miles apart. Frequency modulation (FM) is used in microwave radio systems rather than amplitude modulation (AM) because AM signals are more sensitive to amplitude nonlinearities inherent in wideband microwave amplifiers. Intermodulation noise is a major factor when designing FM radio systems. The preemphasis network provides an artificial boost in amplitude to the higher baseband frequencies. With systems that are longer than 40 miles or when geographical obstructions, such as a mountain, block the transmission path, repeaters are needed. A microwave repeater is a receiver and a transmitter placed back to back or in tandem with the system. IF repeaters are also called heterodyne repeaters. With an IF repeater, the received RF carrier is down-converted to an IF frequency, amplified, reshaped, up-converted to an RF frequency, and then retransmitted. With baseband repeater, the received RF carrier is down-converted to an IF frequency, amplified, filtered, and then further demodulated to the baseband. The baseband signal, which is typically frequency-divisionmultiplexed voice-band channels, is further demodulated to a mastergroup, supergroup, group, or even channel level. The baseband frequencies are generally less than 9 MHz, whereas the IF frequencies are in the range 60 MHz to 80 MHz. In a microwave system, the purpose of using diversity is to increase the reliability of the system by increasing its availability. Frequency diversity is simply modulating two different RF carrier frequencies with the same IF intelligence, then transmitting both RF signals to a given destination. At the destination, both carriers are demodulated, and the one that yields the better-quality IF signal is selected. With space diversity, the output of a transmitter is fed to two or more antennas that are physically separated by an appreciable number of wavelengths. With polarization diversity, a single RF carrier is propagated with two different electromagnetic polarizations (vertical and horizontal). Receiver diversity is using more the one receiver for a single radiofrequency channel. Quad diversity is another form of hybrid diversity and undoubtedly provides the most reliable transmission; however, it is also the most expensive. It combines frequency, space, polarization, and receiver diversity into one system.

Hybrid diversity is a somewhat specialized form of diversity that consists of a standard frequency-diversity path where the two transmitter/receiver pairs at one end of the path are separated from each other and connected to different antennas that are vertically separated as in space diversity. This arrangement combines the operational advantages of frequency diversity with the improved diversity protection of space diversity. With hot standby protection, each working radio channel has a dedicated backup or spare channel. With diversity protection, a single backup channel is made available to as many as 11 working channels. Hot standby systems offer 100% protection for each working radio channel. A diversity system offers 100% protection only to the first working channel to fail. Terminal stations are points in the system where baseband signals either originate or terminate. Repeater stations are points in a system where baseband signals may be reconfigured or where RF carriers are simply repeated or amplified. A microwave generator provides the RF carrier input to the up-converter. An isolator is a unidirectional device often made form a ferrite material. The isolator is used in conjunction with a channel-combining network to prevent the output of one transmitter from interfering with the output of another transmitter. Examples of commonly used low-noise amplifiers (LNAs) are tunnel diodes and parametric amplifiers. At frequencies below 1.5 MHz, the surface wave provides the primary coverage, and the sky wave helps extend this coverage at night when the absorption of the ionosphere is at a minimum. Free-space path loss is often defined as the loss incurred by an electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a straight line through a vacuum with no absorption or reflection of energy from nearby objects. All points from which a wave could be reflected with an additional path length of one-half wavelength form an ellipse that defines the first Fresnel zone. Fading is a general term applied to the reduction in signal strength at the input to a receiver. Fading can occur under conditions of heavy ground fog or when extremely cold air moves over warm ground. Multipath fading occurs primarily during nighttime hours on typical microwave links operating between 2 GHz and 6 GHz. System gain is the difference between the nominal output power of a transmitter and the minimum input power to a receiver necessary to achieve satisfactory performance. Fade margin (sometimes called link margin) is essentially a fudge factor included in system gain equations that considers the nonideal and less predictable characteristics of radio-wave propagation, such as multipath propagation (multipath loss) and terrain sensitivity.

Satellite Communications
A satellite is a celestial body that orbits around a planet. A satellite radio repeater is called a transponder, of which a satellite may have many. The simplest type of satellite is a passive reflector, which is a device that simply bounces signals from one place to another. The moon became the first passive satellite in 1954, when the U.S. Navy successfully transmitted the first message over this Earth-to-moon-toEarth communications system. In 1957, Russia launched Sputnik 1, the first active earth satellite. An active satellite is capable of receiving, amplifying, reshaping, regenerating, and retransmitting information. In 1957, Russia launched Sputnik 1, the first active earth satellite. An active satellite is capable of receiving, amplifying, reshaping, regenerating, and transmitting information. Sputnik 1 transmitted telemetry information for 21 days. Later in the same year, the United States launched Explorer 1, which transmitted telemetry information for nearly five months. In 1958, NASA launched Score, a 150-pound conical-shaped satellite. With an on board tape recording, Score rebroadcast President Eisenhowers 1958 Christmas message. Score was the first artificial satellite used for relaying terrestrial communications. Score was a delayed repeater satellite as it received transmissions from earth stations, stored them on magnetic tape, and then rebroadcast them later to ground stations farther along in its orbit. In 1960, NASA in conjunction with Bell Telephone Laboratories and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory launched Echo, a 100-foot-diameter plastic balloon with an aluminum coating. The first transatlantic transmission using a satellite was accomplished using Echo. Also in 1960, the Department of Defense launched Courier, which was the first transponder-type satellite. In 1962, AT&T launched Telstar1, the first active satellite to simultaneously receive and transmit radio signals. Telstar 2 was used for telephone, television, facsimile, and data transmissions and accomplished the first successful transatlantic video transmission. The Syncom 3 satellite was used to broadcast the 1964 Olympic Games from Tokyo. Intelsat 1 (called Early telecommunications satellite. Intelsat stands Organization. for Bird) was the first commercial Satellite

In the United States today, a publicly owned company called Communications Satellite Corporation (Comsat) regulates the use and operation of U.S. satellites and also sets their tariffs. A satellite remains in orbit because the centrifugal force caused by its rotation around Earth is counterbalanced by Earths gravitational pull. German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) discovered the laws that govern satellite motion. Keplers first law states that a satellite will orbit a primary body (like Earth) following an elliptical path. Keplers second law, enunciated with the first law in 1609, is known as the law of areas. Keplers second law states that for equal intervals of time a satellite will sweep out equal areas in the orbital plane, focused at the barycenter. The velocity will be greatest at the point of closest approach to Earth (known as the perigee), and the velocity will be least at the farthest point from Earth (known as the apogee). Keplers third law, announced in 1619, is sometimes known as the harmonic law. The third law states that the square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean distance between the primary and the satellite. Nonsynchronous satellites rotate around Earth in an elliptical or circular pattern. If the satellite is orbiting in the same direction as Earths rotation (counterclockwise) and at an angular velocity greater than that of Earth, the orbit is called a prograde or posigrade orbit. If the satellite is orbiting in the opposite direction as Earths rotation or in the same direction with the angular velocity less than that of Earth, the orbit is called a retrograde orbit. Most nonsynchronous satellites revolve around Earth in a prograde orbit. Most low earth orbit (LEO) satellites operate in the 1.0-GHz to 2.5-GHz frequency range. Motorolas satellite-based mobile-telephone system, Iridium, is a LEO system utilizing a 66-satellite constellation orbiting approximately 480 miles above Earths surface. MEO satellites operate in the 1.2-GHz to 1.66-GHz frequency band and orbit between 6000 miles and 12,000 miles above Earth. NAVSTAR, is a MEO system with a constellation of 21 working satellites and six spares orbiting approximately 9500 miles above Earth. Geosynchronous satellites are high-altitude earth-orbit satellites operating primarily in the 2-GHz to 18-GHz frequency spectrum with orbits 22,300 miles above Earths surface. Most commercial communication satellites are in geosynchronous orbit. Geosynchronous or geostationary satellites are those that orbit in a circular pattern with an angular velocity equal to that of Earth. Satellites in high-elevation, nonsynchronous circular orbits between 19,000 miles and 25,000 miles above Earth are said to be in nearsynchronous orbit. Apogee. The point in an orbit that is located farthest from Earth Perigee. The point in an orbit that is located closest to Earth Major axis. The line joining the perigee and apogee through the center of Earth; sometimes called line of apsides Minor axis. The line perpendicular to the major axis and halfway between the perigee and apogee

International

Telecommunications

The former Soviet Union launched the first set of domestic satellites (Domsats) in 1966 and called them Molniya, meaning lightning. Domsat are satellites that are owned, operated, and used by a single country. In 1972, Canada launched its first commercial satellite designated Anik, which is an Inuit word meaning little brother.

All satellites rotate around Earth in an orbit that forms a plane that passes through the center of gravity of Earth called the geocenter. Inclined orbits are virtually all orbits except those that travel directly above the equator or directly over the North and South Poles. An equatorial orbit is when the satellite rotates in an orbit directly above the equator, usually in a circular path. All geosynchronous satellites are in equatorial orbits. A polar orbit is when the satellite rotates in a path that takes it over the North and South Poles in an orbit perpendicular to the equatorial plane. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Molniya is an interesting orbital satellite currently in use. Molniya can also be spelled Molnya and Molnia, which means lightning in Russian (in colloquial Russian, Molniya means news flash). Molniya satellites are used for government communications, telephone, television, and video. One sidereal day for Earth is 23 hours and 56 minutes. A sidereal day is sometimes called the period or sidereal period. Satellites remain in orbit as a result of a balance between centrifugal and gravitational forces. The process of maneuvering a satellite within a preassigned window is called station keeping. A geosynchronous earth orbit is sometimes referred to as the Clarke orbit or Clarke belt, after Arthur C. Clarke, who first suggested its existence in 1945 and proposed its use for communications satellites. Angle of elevation (sometimes called elevation angle) is the vertical angle formed between the direction of travel of an electromagnetic wave radiated from an earth station antenna pointing directly toward a satellite and horizontal plane. Azimuth is the horizontal angular distance from a reference direction, either the southern or northern most point of the horizon. Azimuth angle is defined as the horizontal pointing angle of an earth station antenna. A spinner satellite uses the angular momentum of its spinning body to provide roll and yaw stabilization. Three-axis stabilizer, the body remains fixed relative to Earths surface, while an internal subsystem provides roll and yaw stabilization. The geographical representation of a satellite antennas radiation pattern is called a footprint or sometimes a footprint map. In essence, a footprint of a satellite is the area on Earths surface that the satellite can receive from or transmit to. Spot beams concentrate their power to very small geographical areas and, therefore, typically have proportionately higher EIRPs than those targeting much larger areas because a given output power can be more concentrated. Spot and zonal beams blanket less than 10% of the Earths surface. Hemispherical downlink antennas typically target up to 20% of the Earths surface and, therefore, have EIRPs that are 3 dB or 50% lower than those transmitted by spot beams that typically cover only 10% of the Earths surface. The wideband carrier power is the combined power of the carrier and its associated sidebands. Gain-to-equivalent noise temperature ratio is a figure of merit used to represent the quality of a satellite or earth station receiver.

A link budget identifies the system parameters and is used to determine the projected C/N and E/N ratios at both the satellite and earth station receivers for a given modulation scheme and desired P(e).

Satellite Multiple Accessing Arrangements

Multiple accessing is sometimes called multiple destinations because the transmissions from each earth station are received by all the other earth stations in the system. Communications satellites operating in the C-band are allocated to total bandwidth of 500 MHz symmetrical around the satellites center frequency. Anik is an Eskimo word meaning little brother. The Anik-E communications satellites are Domsats (domestic satellites) operated by Telsat Canada. Satellite multiple accessing (sometimes called multiple destination) implies that more than one user has access to one or more radio channels (transponders) within a satellite communications channel. FDMA, each earth stations transmissions are assigned specific uplink and downlink frequency bands within an allotted satellite bandwidth; they may be preassigned or demand assigned. TDMA, each earth station transmits a short burst of information during a specific time slot (epoch) within a TDMA frame. CDMA, all earth stations transmit within the same frequency band and, for all practical purposes, have no limitations on when they may transmit or on which carrier frequency. Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) is a method of multiple accessing where a given RF bandwidth is divided into smaller frequency bands called subdivisions. The first FDMA demand-assignment system for satellites was developed by Comsat for use on the Intelsat series IVA and V satellites. SPADE is an acronym for single-channel-per-carrier PCM multipleaccess demand-assignment equipment. Time-division multiple access (TDMA) is the predominant multipleaccess method used today. TDMA is a method of time-division multiplexing digitally modulated carriers between participating earth stations within a satellite network through a common satellite transponder. CEPT is the Conference of European Postal and Telecommunications Administrations; the CEPT sets many of the European telecommunication standards. TDMA is a store-and-forward system. Earth stations can transmit only during their specified time slot, although the incoming voice-band signals are continuous. With FDMA, earth stations are limited to a specific bandwidth within a satellite channel or system but have no restriction on when they can transmit. With TDMA, an earth stations transmissions are restricted to a precise time slot but have no restriction on what frequency or bandwidth it may use within a specified satellite system or channel allocation. With code-division multiple access (CDMA), there are no restrictions on time or bandwidth. CDMA is sometimes referred to as spread-spectrum multiple access. Earth stations transmissions are encoded with a unique binary word called a chip code. Each station has a unique chip code. With CDMA, all earth stations within the system may transmit on the same frequency at the same time.

If half the bits within a code were made the same and half were made exactly the opposite, the resultant would be zero cross correlation between chip code. Such a code is called an orthogonal code. Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DS-SS) is produced when a bipolar data-modulated signal is linearly multiplied by the spreading signal in a special balanced modulator called spreading correlator. The most significant advantage of CDMA is immunity to interference (jamming), which makes CDMA ideally suited for military applications. Frequency hopping is a form of CDMA where a digital code is used to continually change the frequency of the carrier. A digital noninterpolated interface assigns an individual terrestrial channel (TC) to a particular satellite channel (SC) for the duration of the call. A digital speech interpolated interface assigns a terrestrial channel to a satellite channel only when speech energy is present on the TC. Time-assignment speech interpolation (TASI) is a form of analog channel compression that has been used for suboceanic cables for many years. TASI also uses 2:1 compression ratio. Navigation can be defined as the art or science of plotting, ascertaining, or directing the course of movements. With celestial navigation, direction and distance are determined from precisely time sightings of celestial bodies, including the stars and moon. Piloting is fixing a position and direction with respect to familiar, significant landmarks, such as railroad tracks, water towers, barns, mountain peaks, and bodies of water. Dead(ded) reckoning is a navigation technique that determines position by extrapolating a series of measured velocity increments. With radio navigation, position is determined by measuring the travel time of an electromagnetic wave as it moves from a transmitter to a receiver. Until recently, Loran (Long Range Navigation) was the most effective, reliable, and accurate means of radio navigation. Loran-A was developed during World War II, and the most recent version, Loran-C, surfaced in 1980. Navstar is and acronym for Navigation System with Time and Ranging, and GPS is an abbreviation of Global Positioning System. Navstar GPS is a satellite-based open navigation system. United States Department of Defense (DoD) developed Navstar to provide continuous, highly precise position, velocity, and time information to land-, sea-, air-, and space-based users. The Navstar Satellite System was completed in 1994 and is maintained by the United States Air Force. The standard positioning service (SPS) is a positioning and timing service that is available to all GPS users on a continuous, worldwide basis with no direct charge. The precise positioning service (PPS) is a highly accurate military positioning, velocity, and timing service that is available on a continuous, worldwide basis to users authorized by the DoD. The U.S. Air Force Space Command (AFSC) formally declared the Navstar GPS satellite system as being fully operational as of April 27, 1995. The satellite segment, sometimes called the space segment, consists of 24 operational satellites revolving around Earth in six orbit planes approximately 60 apart with four satellites in each plane. There are 21 working satellite and three satellites reserved as spaces.

Each Navstar satellite continually transmits a daily update set of digitally coded ephemeris data that describes its precise orbit. Ephemeris is a term generally associated with a table showing the position of a heavenly body on a number of dates in a regular sequence, in essence, an astronomical almanac. The GPS system works by determining how long it takes a radio signal transmitted from a satellite to reach a land-based receiver and then using that time to calculate the distance between the satellite and the earth station receiver. All Navstar satellites transmit on the same two L band microwave carrier frequencies: L1 = 1575.42 MHz and L2 = 1227.6 MHz. Differential GPS makes standard GPS even more accurate. Differential GPS works by canceling out most of the natural and man-made errors that creep into normal GPS measurement.