HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION OF STABILIZING AND OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION CIRCUITRY AGAINST GUSTS IN WIND FOR AN INDUCTION GENERATOR WIND TURBINE

Submitted for the Partial Fulfilment of the requirements of the Award of the Bachelors Degree by JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY-Kakinada In the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Submitted by SK.TAKHIYUN GESUDARAZ (Reg.No.08341A0279) T.BALA MURALI (Reg.No.09345A0208) G.PRADEEP (Reg.No.08341A0266)

Under the esteemed guidance of T.S.L.V.AYYA RAO Assistant Professor Dept. of EEE GMRIT

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING G.M.R. INSTITUTE OF TEHNOLOGY (Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Kakinada, A.P) Accredited by NAAC A & NBA, ISO 9001:2008 certified G.M.R. Nagar, Rajam-532 127, A.P. APRIL-2012

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering G.M.R. INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY G.M.R.NAGAR, RAJAM

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Project report entitled Hardware implementation of stabilizing and overvoltage protection circuits against gusts in wind for an induction generator wind turbine that is being submitted by G.PRADEEP, SK.TAKHIYUN GESUDARAZ and T.BALA MURALI in partial fulfilment for the award of B.Tech. degree in Electrical and Electronics Engineering to the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University is a record of bonafide work carried out under our guidance and supervision. The results embodied in this report have not been submitted to any other University or Institute for the award of any degree of diploma.

Signature of Guide
T.S.L.V.AYYA RAO Assistant Professor Dept. of EEE GMRIT, Rajam.
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Signature of H.O.D
M.VENKATESWARA RAO Head of the Department Dept. of EEE GMRIT, Rajam.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are very much grateful to our Project Guide Mr T.S.L.V.AYYA RAO, Assistant Professor in Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, GMRIT, Rajam, for his help, guidance and patience he rendered to us in the completion of our project successfully. We are glad to express our sincere thanks and respect to our Head of the Department Mr M.VENKATESWARA RAO for supporting us in our project. We extend our sincere gratitude to our Principal, Dr. C.L.V.R.S.V PRASAD for having made the atmosphere so easy to work. Last but not the least; we thank the laboratory authorities of Electrical and Electronics Department and everyone else who extended their help and guidance in the completion of our project.

Sincerely G.PRADEEP (08341A0266) SK.TAKHIYUN (08341A0279) T. BALA MURALI (09345A0208)

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CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Chapter 1: Wind Turbines 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Parameters for the choice of wind turbine 1.3 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines 1.3.1 HAWT advantages 1.3.2 HAWT disadvantages 1.4 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines 1.4.1 VAWT advantages 1.4.2 VAWT disadvantages 1.5 Wind turbine glossary Chapter 2: Generator 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Synchronous Generator 2.3 Asynchronous Generator 2.4 Squirrel Cage Induction Generator 2.5 Doubly Fed Induction Generator 2.5.1 Principle of a Double Fed Induction Generator Connected to a Wind Turbine Chapter 3: Indirect Grid Connection of Wind Turbine 3.1 Choice for Kind of Grid Connection 3.2 Generating Alternating Current (AC) at Variable Frequency
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i ii iii vi viii ix x 1-9 2 2 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 10-14 11 11 12 12 13 13

16-19 17 17

3.2.1 Conversion to Direct Current (DC) 3.2.2 Conversion to Fixed Frequency AC 3.2.3 Filtering the AC 3.2 Advantages of Indirect Grid Connection: Variable Speed 3.3 Disadvantages of Indirect Grid Connection Chapter 4: Simulation of a Wind Turbine Asynchronous Generator in Isolated Network 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Simulation of a 275kVA, 480V wind turbine asynchronous generator in isolated network 4.2.1 Model Description 4.2.2 Simulation Work Done 4.3 Simulation Results Chapter 5: Hardware Implementation of the Concept of Indirect Grid Connection 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Rectifier Circuit 5.3 Regulator Circuit 5.4 Inverter Circuit 5.4.1 IC 555 Timer 5.5 Overvoltage Protection Circuit Chapter 6: Components and Their Specifications 6.1 KA7812E Fixed voltage regulator 6.2 TIP41A Transistor 6.3 TIP42A Transistor Chapter 7: Experimental Results 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Experimental Setup 7.2.1 Overvoltage Protection Stage 7.2.2 Rectifier and Regulatory Stages
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16 16 18 18 19 20-25 21 21 22 22 23 26-35 27 27 28 30 30 34 36-39 37 38 39 40-47 41 42 44 45

7.2.3 Inverter Stage Chapter 8: Conclusions

46 48-49

References

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig.1.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Fig.1.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Fig.1.3 Parts of A Wind Turbine Fig.1.4 Power Coefficient vs. Tip Speed Ratio Fig.2.1 Synchronous Generator Fig.2.2 Cage Rotor Fig.3.1 Indirect Grid Connection of Wind Turbines and the Production of Fixed Frequency AC Fig.4.1 Wind Turbine Asynchronous Generator in Isolated Network Fig.4.2 Voltage, Current, Frequency and Speed waveforms of the Wind Turbine after the Additional Load and the Frequency Regulation Fig.4.3 Voltage, Current, Frequency and Speed waveforms of the Wind Turbine Fig.4.4 Wind Turbine, Secondary Load, Main Load and Synchronous Condenser Power waveforms Fig.5.1 Rectifier Circuit Fig.5.2 Diodes with Different Voltage Ranges Fig.5.3 TO-220 Plastic Package of 78XX Regulator Fig. 5.4 Types of 12V regulators with different current ratings Fig.5.5 Circuit diagram for the 12V regulator Fig.5.6 Inverter Circuit Fig.5.7 NE555 in Dual-In-Line Package Fig.5.8 Pin-out Diagram of 555
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3 5 7 9 11 13 17

21 23

24 25

27 28 28 29 29 30 31 31

Fig.5.9 Standard 555 Astable Circuit Fig.5.10 Overvoltage Protection Circuit Fig.6.1 TIP41A TO-220 Package (Top View) Fig. 7.1 Block Diagram of the Proposed System Fig.7.2 Experimental Setup Fig.7.3 Overvoltage Protection Stage Fig. 7.4 230/24-0-24 V, 1A Transformer-2 Fig. 7.5 Rectifier and Regulator Stages Fig. 7.6 Inverter Stage

32 34 38 42 43 44 45 46 47

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Top 5 Countries with Installed Capacity Table 2 State wise Generation and Installed Capacity Table 2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Wind Generator Concepts Table 6.1 Electrical Characteristics of KA7812E Fixed Voltage Regulator Table 6.2 Absolute maximum ratings of TIP41 series, Tc = 25 C unless otherwise noted Table 6.3 Absolute maximum ratings of TIP42 series, Tc = 25oC unless otherwise noted Table 7.1 Output voltages at various stages
o

xii xii

14 37 38

39

43

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ABSTRACT

This report describes about the wind power and its potential that can be harnessed in the future to meet the current energy demand in the introduction. With detailed description of the wind turbine and the wind generator focus has been given on the indirect connection of the wind generators with the grid which allows the turbine to run at variable speed. This report has also showed the experimental setup to stabilize the voltage from the wind generator and the protection circuit from high voltages representing gusts in the wind.

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INTRODUCTION

Renewable Energy Sources are those energy sources which are not destroyed when their energy is harnessed. Human use of renewable energy requires technologies that harness natural phenomena, such as sunlight, wind, waves, water flow, and biological processes such as anaerobic digestion, biological hydrogen production and geothermal heat. Amongst the above mentioned sources of energy there has been a lot of development in the technology for harnessing energy from the wind. Wind is the motion of air masses produced by the irregular heating of the earths surface by sun. These differences consequently create forces that push air masses around for balancing the global temperature or, on a much smaller scale, the temperature between land and sea or between mountains. Wind energy is not a constant source of energy. It varies continuously and gives energy in sudden bursts. About 50% of the entire energy is given out in just 15% of the operating time. Wind strengths vary and thus cannot guarantee continuous power. It is best used in the context of a system that has significant reserve capacity such as hydro, or reserve load such as a desalination plant, to mitigate the economic effects of resource variability. The power extracted from the wind can be calculated by the given formula: Pw = 0.5 R2 Vw3 CP (, ) Pw = extracted power from the wind, = air density, (approximately 1.205 kg/m3 at 20o C at sea level) R = blade radius (in m) Vw = wind velocity (m/s) (velocity can be controlled between 3 to 30 m/s) CP = the power coefficient which is a function of both tip speed ratio (), and blade pitch angle ( in degrees) (1)

Power coefficient (Cp) is defined as the ratio of the output power produced to the power available in the wind. Betz Limit No wind turbine could convert more than 59.26% of the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy turning a rotor. This is known as the Betz Limit, and is the theoretical maximum coefficient of power for any wind turbine. The maximum value of CP according to Betz limit is 59.26%. For good turbines it is in the range of 35-45%. The tip speed ratio () for wind turbines is the ratio between the rotational speed of the tip of a blade and the actual velocity of the wind. High efficiency 3-blade-turbines have tip speed ratios of 67. The total capacity of wind power on this earth that can be harnessed is about 72 TW (though this number keeps on changing with the varying climate scenario). There are now many thousands of wind turbines operating in various parts of the world. The power generation by wind energy was about 240.5 GW in 2011 which makes up nearly 3% of the total power generated in the world. Globally, the long-term technical potential of wind energy is believed to be 40 times current electricity demand. This would require covering 12.7% of all land area with wind turbines. This land would have to be covered with 6 large wind turbines per square kilometer. Some 80 percent of the global wind power market is now centered in just four countries which reflects the failure of most other nations to adopt supportive renewable energy policies. Future market growth will depend in large measure on whether additional countries make way for renewable energy sources as they reform their electricity industries.

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Table 1: Top 5 Countries with Installed Capacity Country China USA Germany Spain India Installed Capacity (in MW) 44,733 40,180 27,214 20,676 14,158

Indias Market Overview of Wind Energy Overview India has a vast supply of renewable energy resources. India has one of the worlds largest programs for deployment of renewable energy products and systems 3,700 MW from renewable energy sources installed. Table 2: State Wise Generation and Installed Capacity

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CHAPTER 1

WIND TURBINES

1.1 Introduction A wind turbine is a rotating machine which converts the kinetic energy in wind into mechanical energy. If the mechanical energy is then converted to electricity, the machine is called a wind generator, wind turbine, wind power unit (WPU), wind energy converter (WEC), or aerogenerator. 1.2 Parameters for the choice of suitable wind turbine Wind speed at the site is estimated using wind speed measurements from a nearby location where an anemometer is made use of to estimate cut-in, rated and shutdown wind speeds. Rotor swept area and solidity Solidity is a factor which tells the fraction of swept area of wind turbine that appears to be solid. It is inversely proportional to the tip speed ratio (=R/V). Shape of the turbine blades if suited to cope with the centrifugal forces acting on the blades. Weight of the blades a limiting factor on the maximum size of the wind turbine because of the effect of reversing gravitational loads. Knowledge of lift coefficient (CL) and Drag coefficient (CD ) or their ratio is needed for the design of airfoil. Airfoils can also now be designed with the aid of specially developed software. Difficulty in the manufacture, transportation and installation.

Wind turbines can be separated into two types based by the axis in which the turbine rotates. Turbines that rotate around a horizontal axis are more common. Vertical-axis turbines are less frequently used.

1.3 Horizontal axis wind turbines

Fig.1.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator. Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually pointed upwind of the tower. Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in front of the tower and are sometimes tilted up a small amount. Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence, because they don't need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind, and because in high winds the blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept area and thus their wind resistance. Since cyclic (that is repetitive) turbulence may lead to fatigue failures most HAWTs are upwind machines.

1.3.1 HAWT advantages Variable blade pitch, which gives the turbine blades the optimum angle of attack. allowing the angle of attack to be remotely adjusted gives greater control, so the turbine collects the maximum amount of wind energy for the time of day and season. The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear. In some wind shear sites, every ten meters up, the wind speed can increase by 20% and the power output by 44%. High efficiency, since the blades always move perpendicularly to the wind, receiving power through the whole rotation. In contrast, all vertical axis wind turbines, and most proposed airborne wind turbine designs, involve various types of reciprocating actions, requiring airfoil surfaces to backtrack against the wind for part of the cycle. Backtracking against the wind leads to inherently lower efficiency. 1.3.2 HAWT disadvantages The tall towers and blades up to 90 meters long are difficult to transport. Transportation can now cost 20% of equipment costs. Tall HAWTs are difficult to install, needing very tall and expensive cranes and skilled operators. Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox, and generator. Reflections from tall HAWTs may affect side lobes of radar installations creating signal clutter, although filtering can suppress it. Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulence when a blade passes through the tower's wind shadow (for this reason, the majority of HAWTs use an upwind design, with the rotor facing the wind in front of the tower).

 HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades toward the wind. 1.4 Vertical axis wind turbines

Fig.1.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. Key advantages of this arrangement are that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be effective. This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is highly variable. VAWTs can utilize winds from varying directions. With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, so the tower doesn't need to support it, and it is more accessible for maintenance. Drawbacks are that some designs produce pulsating torque. Drag may be created when the blade rotates into the wind. 1.4.1 VAWT advantages A massive tower structure is less frequently used, as VAWTs are more frequently mounted with the lower bearing mounted near the ground. Designs without yaw mechanisms are possible with fixed pitch rotor designs. A VAWT can be located near the ground, making it easier to maintain the moving parts
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 VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than HAWTs. Typically, they start creating electricity at 6 M.P.H. (10 km/h). VAWTs may have a lower noise signature. 1.4.2 VAWT disadvantages Most VAWTs produce energy at only 50% of the efficiency of HAWTs in large part because of the additional drag that they have as their blades rotate into the wind. While VAWTs' parts are located on the ground, they are also located under the weight of the structure above it, which can make changing out parts nearly impossible without dismantling the structure if not designed properly. Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds are lower due to wind shear, VAWTs may not produce as much energy at a given site as a HAWT with the same footprint or height. Because VAWTs are not commonly deployed due mainly to the serious disadvantages mentioned above, they appear novel to those not familiar with the wind industry. This has often made them the subject of wild claims and investment scams over the last 50 years. Based on the analysis of the effect of above mentioned parameters on the choice of a suitable turbine in a location with an average wind velocity of 2.5m/s would possibly be a horizontal axis wind turbine with a huge hub height. 1.5 Wind Turbine Glossary Anemometer: Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller. Blades: Most turbines have either two or three blades. Wind blowing over the blades causes the blades to "lift" and rotate. Brake: A disc brake which can be applied mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically to stop the rotor in emergencies.

Fig.1.3 Parts of a Wind Turbine Controller: The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour (mph) and shuts off the machine at about 65 mph. Turbines cannot operate at wind speeds above about 65 mph because their generators could overheat. Gear box: Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the rotational speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1200 to 1500 rpm, the rotational speed required by most generators to produce electricity. The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part of the wind turbine and engineers are exploring "direct-drive" generators that operate at lower rotational speeds and don't need gear boxes. Generator: Usually an off-the-shelf induction generator that produces 50-cycle AC electricity.

High-speed shaft: Drives the generator. Low-speed shaft: The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 rotations per minute. Nacelle: The rotor attaches to the nacelle, which sits atop the tower and includes the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts, generator, controller, and brake. A cover protects the components inside the nacelle. Some nacelles are large enough for a technician to stand inside while working. Pitch: Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to keep the rotor from turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity. Rotor: The blades and the hub together are called the rotor. Tower: Towers are made from tubular steel (shown here) or steel lattice. Because wind speed increases with height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more electricity. Wind direction: This is an "upwind" turbine, so-called because it operates facing into the wind. Other turbines are designed to run "downwind", facing away from the wind. Wind vane: Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the turbine properly with respect to the wind. Yaw drive: Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into the wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive, the wind blows the rotor downwind. Yaw motor: Powers the yaw drive. The following is a graph between Power Coefficient (CP) vs. Tip Speed Ratio ()

Fig.1.4 Power Coefficient vs. Tip Speed Ratio Wind turbines typically have two degrees of freedom to optimize power generation. 1. The ability to change their yaw or compass orientation by turning (using motors) the entire nacelle unit so the rotor is pointed directly into the wind. This process is controlled by wind direction information from nearby wind vanes which are located to minimize the effect due to wake turbulence from the wind turbines. 2. The pitch of the blades which can be changed to keep a near-constant rotation rate under varying wind speeds, where the rotation rate is chosen to optimize the power-generation efficiency of the turbine. Another purpose of both the blade pitch control and yaw Mechanisms is to act as a brake under extremely strong wind condition. Cut- in speed: The lowest wind speed at which a wind turbine begins producing usable power is called cut-in speed. It is about 3m/s. Cut-out speed: The highest wind speed at which a wind turbine stops producing power is called cut-out speed. It is about 30m/s.

CHAPTER 2

GENERATOR

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2.1 Introduction A generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Wind generators have traditionally been wind turbines, i.e. a propeller attached to an electric generator attached to appropriate electronics to attach it to the electrical grid. Generators can be classified broadly into two categories: a) Synchronous Generators b) Asynchronous Generators The basis of this categorization is the speed at which the generators are run. Synchronous generators are run at synchronous speed (1500 rpm for a 4 pole machine at 50Hz frequency) while asynchronous generators run at a speed more than the synchronous speed. 2.2 Synchronous generator Synchronous generators are doubly fed machines which generate electricity by the principle when the magnetic field around a conductor changes, a current is induced in the conductor. Typically, a rotating magnet called the rotor turns within a stationary set of conductors wound in coils on an iron core, called the stator. The field cuts across the conductors, generating an electrical current, as the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn.

Fig.2.1 Synchronous Generator

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The rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings. Often there are three sets of stator windings, physically offset so that the rotating magnetic field produces three phase currents, displaced by one-third of a period with respect to each other. The rotor magnetic field may be produced by induction by permanent magnets (in very small machines), or by a rotor winding energized with direct current through slip rings and brushes. The rotor magnetic field may even be provided by stationary field winding, with moving poles in the rotor. Automotive alternators invariably use a rotor winding, which allows control of the alternator generated voltage by varying the current in the rotor field winding. Permanent magnet machines avoid the loss due to magnetizing current in the rotor, but are restricted in size, owing to the cost of the magnet material. Since the permanent magnet field is constant, the terminal voltage varies directly with the speed of the generator. 2.3 Asynchronous generator Asynchronous generators or Induction generators are singly excited a.c. machine. Its stator winding is directly connected to the ac source whereas its rotor winding receives its energy from stator by means of induction. Balanced currents produce constant amplitude rotating mmf wave. The stator produced mmf and rotor produced mmf wave, both rotate in the air gap in the same direction at synchronous speed. These two mmfs combine to give the resultant air-gap flux density wave of constant amplitude and rotating at synchronous speed. This flux induces currents in the rotor and an electromagnetic torque is produced which rotates the rotor. Asynchronous generators are mostly used as wind turbines as they can be operated at variable speed unlike synchronous generator. Two kinds of asynchronous generators are used namely a) Squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG) b) Doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) 2.4 Squirrel cage induction generator A squirrel cage rotor is the rotating part. In overall shape it is a cylinder mounted on a shaft. Internally it contains longitudinal conductive bars (usually made of aluminum or copper) set into grooves and connected together at both ends by shorting rings forming a cage-like shape. The core of the rotor is built of a stack of iron laminations.
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Fig.2.2 Cage Rotor The field windings in the stator of an induction motor set up a rotating magnetic field around the rotor. The relative motion between this field and the rotation of the rotor induces electric current in the conductive bars. In turn these currents lengthwise in the conductors react with the magnetic field of the motor to produce force acting at a tangent to the rotor, resulting in torque to turn the shaft. In effect the rotor is carried around with the magnetic field but at a slightly slower rate of rotation. The difference in speed is called slip and increases with load. 2.5 Doubly fed induction generator DFIG is Double Fed Induction Generator, a generating principle widely used in wind turbines. It is based on an induction generator with a multiphase wound rotor and a multiphase slipring assembly with brushes for access to the rotor windings. 2.5.1 Principle of a Double Fed Induction Generator connected to a wind turbine The principle of the DFIG is that rotor windings are connected to the grid via sliprings and back-to-back voltage source converter that controls both the rotor and the grid currents. Thus rotor frequency can freely differ from the grid frequency. By controlling the rotor currents by the converter it is possible to adjust the active and reactive power fed to the grid from the stator independently of the generators turning speed. The control principle used is either the two-axis current vector control or direct torque control (DTC). DTC has turned out to have better stability than current vector control especially when high reactive currents are required from the generator. The doubly-fed generator rotors are typically wound with from 2 to 3 times the number of turns of the stator. This means that the rotor voltages will be higher and currents respectively lower. Thus in the typical 30 % operational speed range around the synchronous speed the rated current of the converter is accordingly lower leading to a low cost of the converter. The
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drawback is that controlled operation outside the operational speed range is impossible because of the higher than rated rotor voltage. Further, the voltage transients due to the grid disturbances (three- and two-phase voltage dips, especially) will also be magnified. In order to prevent high rotor voltages - and high currents resulting from these voltages - from destroying the IGBTs and diodes of the converter a protection circuit (called crowbar) is used. The crowbar will short-circuit the rotor windings through a small resistance when excessive currents or voltages are detected. In order to be able to continue the operation as quickly as possible an active crowbar has to be used. The active crowbar can remove the rotor short in a controlled way and thus the rotor side converter can be started only after 20-60 ms from the start of the grid disturbance. Thus it is possible to generate reactive current to the grid during the rest of the voltage dip and in this way help the grid to recover from the fault. As a summary, a doubly fed induction machine is a wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine and has several advantages over a conventional induction machine in wind power applications. Firstly, as the rotor circuit is controlled by a power electronics converter, the induction generator is able to both import and export reactive power. This has important consequences for power system stability and allows the machine to support the grid during severe voltage disturbances (low voltage ride through, LVRT). Secondly, the control of the rotor voltages and currents enables the induction machine to remain synchronized with the grid while the wind turbine speed varies. A variable speed wind turbine utilizes the available wind resource more efficiently than a fixed speed wind turbine, especially during light wind conditions. Thirdly, the cost of the converter is low when compared with other variable speed solutions because only fraction of the mechanical power, typically 25-30 %, is fed to the grid through the converter, the rest being fed to grid directly from the stator. The efficiency of the DFIG is very good for the same reason. Table 2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Wind Generator Concepts Generator Concept (Type) SCIG Easier to design, construct and control Robust operation Low cost Low energy yield No active/reactive power controllability High mechanical stress High losses on gear Advantages Disadvantages

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WRSG

DFIG

High energy yield Higher active/reactive power controllability Absence of brush/slipring Low mechanical stress High energy yield High active/reactive power controllability Lower cost on PEC Lower losses by PEC Less mechanical stress Compact size

Higher cost of copper winding Higher cost on PEC Higher losses on PEC Large size Existence of brush/slipring High losses on gear

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CHAPTER 3

GRID CONNECTION OF WIND TURBINES

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3.1 Choice for kind of grid connection There are two possible forms for connection to the electrical grid: direct and indirect grid connection of the generator. Direct connection means that the generator will be directly connected with a 3-phase alternating current grid. By indirect grid connection the current passes through a er of electrical components in which the current is matched to the grid. In the past wind turbines ran at almost constant speed with direct grid connection, but nowadays more and more wind turbines run at variable speed. With variable speed it is not possible to connect direct to the electricity grid. These wind turbines act on their own separated grids. An inverter controls this grid so the frequency of the alternating current can be varied. In this way its possible to rotate the turbine with varying speeds. The generator generates an alternating current with the same frequency, which is applied to the stator. Alternating current (AC) with a varying frequency cant be connected directly to the grid. That is why the alternating current is converged into a direct current (DC). For the conversion of AC to DC one can use a thyristor or large power transistors. The fluctuating DC will be converted to an AC with the same frequency as the grid. This can be done with an inverter. The inverter has a low efficiency because there is not a smooth sinus coming out of it. By filtering the signal you can make the sinus smooth, but it will not happen beautiful.

Fig. 3.1 Indirect Grid Connection of Wind Turbines and the Production of Fixed Frequency AC 3.2 Generating Alternating Current (AC) at Variable Frequency Most wind turbines run at almost constant speed with direct grid connection. With indirect grid connection, however, the wind turbine generator runs in its own, separate mini AC-grid,

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as illustrated in the graphic. This grid is controlled electronically (using an inverter), so that the frequency of the alternating current in the stator of the generator may be varied. In this way it is possible to run the turbine at variable rotational speed. Thus the turbine will generate alternating current at exactly the variable frequency applied to the stator. The generator may be either a synchronous generator or an asynchronous generator, and the turbine may have a gearbox, as in the image above, or run without a gearbox if the generator has many poles. 3.2.1 Conversion to Direct Current (DC) AC current with a variable frequency cannot be handled by the public electrical grid. We therefore start by rectifying it. The conversion from variable frequency AC to DC can be done using thyristors or large power transistors. 3.2.2 Conversion to Fixed Frequency AC We then convert the (fluctuating) direct current to an alternating current (using an inverter) with exactly the same frequency as the public electrical grid. This conversion to AC in the inverter can also be done using either thyristors or transistors. 3.2.3 Filtering the AC The rectangular shaped waves can be smoothed out, however, using appropriate inductances and capacitors, in a so-called AC filter mechanism. The somewhat jagged appearance of the voltage does not disappear completely. 3.3 Advantages of Indirect Grid Connection: Variable Speed The advantage of indirect grid connection is that it is possible to run the wind turbine at variable speed. The primary advantage is that gusts of wind can be allowed to make the rotor turn faster, thus storing part of the excess energy as rotational energy until the gust is over. Obviously, this requires an intelligent control strategy, since we have to be able to differentiate between gusts and higher wind speed in general. Thus it is possible to reduce the peak torque (reducing wear on the gearbox and generator), and we may also reduce the fatigue loads on the tower and rotor blades.

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The secondary advantage is that with power electronics one may control reactive power (i.e. the phase shifting of current relative to voltage in the AC grid), so as to improve the power quality in the electrical grid. This may be useful, particularly if a turbine is running on a weak electrical grid. Theoretically, variable speed may also give a slight advantage in terms of annual production, since it is possible to run the machine at an optimal rotational speed, depending on the wind speed. From an economic point of view that advantage is so small, however, that it is hardly worth mentioning. 3.4 Disadvantages of Indirect Grid Connection The basic disadvantage of indirect grid connection is cost. As we just learned, the turbine will need a rectifier and two inverters, one to control the stator current, and another to generate the output current. Presently, it seems that the cost of power electronics exceeds the gains to be made in building lighter turbines, but that may change as the cost of power electronics decreases. Looking at operating statistics from wind turbines using power electronics, it also seems that availability rates for these machines tend to be somewhat lower than conventional machines, due to failures in the power electronics. Other disadvantages are the energy lost in the AC-DC-AC conversion process, and the fact that power electronics may introduce harmonic distortion of the alternating current in the electrical grid, thus reducing power quality. Although the size and direction of the wind is stochastic and the output power of the wind turbine varies with the starting and ceasing of the system, the induction generator has many merits, such as low cost, high credibility and easy servicing. The modes of induction generator connected to grid are adopted in large wind farms. Therere two types of wind turbine connected to grid. One is the direct grid-connection mode; the other is connected to grid though a power electronics.

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CHAPTER 4

SIMULATION OF A WIND TURBINE ASYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR IN ISOLATED NETWORK

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4.1 Introduction In case of far-flung areas where laying of transmission lines for electricity does not seem feasible and economical, electric power is generated using synchronous generators. In such isolated networks, a wind turbine asynchronous generator would be a better alternative because of the abundant availability of wind in addition to the already installed synchronous generator. Thus, reliability of the electric system can be improved as well as the cost can be minimized to a greater extent. Considering such system simulation has been carried out and the following are the results. 4.2 Simulation of a 275kVA, 480V wind turbine asynchronous generator in isolated network

Fig.4.1 Wind Turbine Asynchronous Generator in Isolated Network

4.2.1 Model Description A generic model of the High-Penetration, No Storage, Wind-Diesel system is presented here. The system presented here uses a 480 V, 300 kVA synchronous machine, a wind turbine driving a 480 V, 275 kVA induction generator, a 50 kW customer load and a variable secondary load (0 to 446.25 kW). At low wind speeds both the induction generator and the diesel-driven synchronous generator are required to feed the load. When the wind power exceeds the load demand, it is possible to shut down the diesel generator. In this all-wind mode, the synchronous machine is used as a synchronous condenser and its excitation system controls the grid voltage at its nominal value. A secondary load bank is used to regulate the system frequency by absorbing the wind power exceeding consumer demand. The Wind Turbine block uses a 2-D Lookup Table to compute the turbine torque output (Tm) as a function of wind speed (w_Wind) and turbine speed (w_Turb). The Secondary Load block consists of eight sets of three-phase resistors connected in series with GTO thyristor switches. The nominal power of each set follows a binary progression so that the load can be varied from 0 to 446.25 kW by steps of 1.75kW. GTOs are simulated by ideal switches. The frequency is controlled by the Discrete Frequency Regulator block. This controller uses a standard three-phase Phase Locked Loop (PLL) system to measure the system frequency. The measured frequency is compared to the reference frequency (50 Hz) to obtain the frequency error. This error is integrated to obtain the phase error. The phase error is then used by a Proportional-Differential (PD) controller to produce an output signal representing the required secondary load power. This signal is converted to an 8-bit digital signal controlling switching of the eight three-phase secondary loads. In order to minimize voltage disturbances, switching is performed at zero crossing of voltage. 4.2.2 Simulation work done The wind speed (10m/s) is such that the wind turbine produces enough power to supply the load. The diesel generator (not simulated) is stopped and the synchronous machine operates
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as a synchronous condenser with its mechanical power input (Pm) set at zero. The demo illustrates the dynamic performance of the frequency regulation system when an additional 25 kW customer load is switched on. Voltages, currents, powers, asynchronous machine speed and system frequency can be observed on the two scopes. Initial conditions (xInitial vector) have been loaded in the workspace so that simulation starts in steady state. As the asynchronous machine operates in generator mode, its speed is slightly above the synchronous speed (1.011 pu). According to turbine characteristics, for a 10 m/s wind speed, the turbine output power is 0.75 pu (206 kW). Because of the asynchronous machine losses, the wind turbine produces 200 kW. As the main load is 50 kW, the secondary load absorbs 150 kW to maintain a constant 60 Hz frequency. At t=0.2 s, the additional load of 25 kW is switched on. The frequency momentarily drops to 47 Hz and the frequency regulator reacts to reduce the power absorbed by the secondary load in order to bring the frequency back to 50 Hz. Voltage stays at 1 pu and no flicker is observed. 4.3 Simulation Results The following represents the voltage, current, frequency and speed waveforms of the wind generator after the frequency regulator reacts to reduce the power absorbed by the secondary load in order to bring the frequency back to 50 Hz from 47 Hz when at t=0.2 s, the additional load of 25kW was switched on.

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Fig.4.2 Voltage, Current, Frequency and Speed waveforms of the Wind Turbine after the Additional Load and the Frequency Regulation In the figures 4.2 and 4.3, The first is the graph between Vabc (pu) and time(s), the second is the graph between Iabc (pu) and time (s), the third is the graph between system frequency (Hz) and time (s) and the last is the graph between asynchronous machine speed (pu) and time (s). Now, the following figure shows the voltage, current, frequency and speed waveforms of the wind generator from t=0 s to t=5s.

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Fig.4.3 Voltage, Current, Frequency and Speed waveforms of the Wind Turbine Now, the following figure shows the wind turbine, secondary load, main load and synchronous condenser power waveforms from t=0 s to t=5s. In the figures 4.4, The first is the graph between power of wind turbine (kW) and time(s), the second is the graph between power of secondary load (kW) and time (s), the third is the graph between power of main load (kW) and time (s) and the last is the graph between reactive power of synchronous machine (kVar) and time (s).

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Fig.4.4 Wind Turbine, Secondary Load, Main Load and Synchronous Condenser Power waveforms

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CHAPTER 5

HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CONCEPT OF INDIRECT GRID CONNECTION

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5.1 Introduction As told earlier about the indirect grid connection of a wind turbine, its main advantage is to be able to run the turbine at variable speed. The result of variable speed is a variable voltage profile and frequency. Thus, the problem of variable voltage asks for a voltage stabilizing circuit. Hence, the voltage stabilizing as well as protection circuit from high voltages has been implemented. The over voltage protection circuit is required taking into account the sudden gusts of wind which result in high voltages being generated. Hardware implementation of the stabilizing circuit employed for the induction generator output voltage of a wind turbine and the protection circuit for it includes the following circuits Rectifier circuit Regulator circuit Inverter circuit Over voltage protection circuit

5.2 Rectifier circuit

Fig.5.1 Rectifier Circuit This rectifier is an uncontrolled full bridge rectifier which makes use of diodes. The input to the diodes is an A.C. rms voltage of 24 volts.
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A capacitor is used at the other end to maintain output voltage and can be considered as a filter. A capacitor with voltage rating twice that of the output voltage is to be chosen.

The capacitor value to be used as filter can be calculated from the formula C = Where, C is the capacitance in farad f is the cut-off frequency in hertz and R is the load resistance in ohm Considering R as 2 ohm and f as 50Hertz, the capacitance value can be obtained as C = 1.12mF. Since there is an availability of 2.2mF capacitors, they are made use of.

Fig.5.2 Diodes with Different Voltage Ranges 5.3 Regulator circuit For the desired output voltage of +12V, a 7812 regulator is most commonly used.

Fig.5.3 TO-220 Plastic Package of 78XX Regulator

The 7812 is a fixed voltage regulator. The three terminals are input, ground and output. The different grades of regulators are available with output voltage of 12V and output current from 0.1A to 1A. Type No. Nominal output voltage range (V) 7812 7912 78M12 78L12 12 -12 12 12 11.5-12.5 -11.5-12.5 11.5-12.5 11.4-12.6 14.5-35.0 -14.5-35.0 14.5-35.0 14.5-35.0 1A positive 1A negative 0.5A positive 0.1A positive Output voltage range (V) Input voltage range (V) Current rating

Fig. 5.4 Types of 12V regulators with different current ratings The fig.5.5 shows a typical connection diagram for the 7812 regulator.

Fig.5.5 Circuit diagram for the 12V regulator

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5.4 Inverter circuit

Fig.5.6 Inverter Circuit This inverter circuit can be used to power electric razors small fluorescent lamps from a 12 volt battery. In contrast to the usual feedback oscillator type of inverter, the oscillator of this inverter is separate from the output stage, which allows easy adjustment of the oscillator frequency to suit different applications. The oscillator circuit consists of a 555 timer connected as an astable multivibrator. The output of the 555 which is taken from pin 3 drives the base of both the transistors T1 and T2 which switch current alternatively to the capacitor (2200uF) allowing it to charge. 5.4.1 IC 555 Timer The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse generation and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up to four timing circuits in one package. Introduced in 1971 by Signetics, the 555 is still in widespread use, thanks to its ease of use, low price and good stability.

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Fig.5.7 NE555 in Dual-In-Line Package Pins

Fig.5.8 Pin-out Diagram of 555 The connection of the pins for a DIP package is as follows: Pin Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 GND TRIG OUT Purpose Ground, low level (0 V) OUT rises, and interval starts, when this input falls below 1/3 VCC. This output is driven to +VCC or GND.

RESET A timing interval may be interrupted by driving this input to GND. CTRL THR "Control" access to the internal voltage divider (by default, 2/3 VCC). The interval ends when the voltage at THR is greater than at CTRL.

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7 8

DIS

Open collector output; may discharge a capacitor between intervals.

V+, VCC Positive supply voltage is usually between 3 and 15 V.

Modes The 555 has three operating modes:

Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator. Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) and so on.

Astable: free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position modulation and so on. Selecting a thermistor as timing resistor allows the use of the 555 in a temperature sensor: the period of the output pulse is determined by the temperature. The use of a microprocessor based circuit can then convert the pulse period to temperature, linearize it and even provide calibration means.

Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free latched switches.

Astable

Fig.5.9 Standard 555 Astable Circuit

In astable mode, the 555 timer puts out a continuous stream of rectangular pulses having a specified frequency. Resistor R1 is connected between VCC and the discharge pin (pin 7) and another resistor (R2) is connected between the discharge pin (pin 7), and the trigger (pin 2) and threshold (pin 6) pins that share a common node. Hence the capacitor is charged through R1 and R2, and discharged only through R2, since pin 7 has low impedance to ground during output low intervals of the cycle, therefore discharging the capacitor. In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream depends on the values of R1, R2 and C:

The high time from each pulse is given by:

and the low time from each pulse is given by:

where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms and C is the value of the capacitor in farads.

The power capability of R1 must be greater than

Particularly with bipolar 555s, low values of R1 must be avoided so that the output stays saturated near zero volts during discharge, as assumed by the above equation. Otherwise the output low time will be greater than calculated above. To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% a diode can be added in parallel with R2 towards the capacitor. This bypasses R2 during the high part of the cycle so that the high interval depends only on R1 and C. Specifications These specifications apply to the NE555.

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Supply voltage (VCC) Supply current (VCC = +5 V) Supply current (VCC = +15 V) Output current (maximum) Maximum Power dissipation

4.5 to 15 V 3 to 6 mA 10 to 15 mA 200 mA 600 mW

Power consumption (minimum operating) 30 mW@5V, 225 mW@15V Operating temperature 0 to 70 C

5.5 Overvoltage Protection Circuit

Fig.5.10 Overvoltage Protection Circuit Looking at the figure we can see a very simple arrangement where T1 and T2 are fixed as an inverter configuration, meaning T2 responds oppositely to T1. In simple words when T1 conducts, T2 switches OFF and vice versa.

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The sensing voltage which is derived from the DC supply voltage itself is fed to the base of T1 via preset P1. The preset is used so that the tripping thresholds can be determined precisely and the circuit understands when to execute the control actions. P1 is set for detecting high voltage limits. Initially when the voltage is within the safe window, T1 remains switched OFF and this allows the required biasing voltage to pass through P2 and reach T2, keeping it switched ON. Therefore the relay is also kept activated and the connected load receives the required AC voltage. However in case suppose, the mains voltage exceeds the safe limit, the sensing sample voltage at the base of T1 also rises above the set threshold, T1 immediately conducts and grounds the base of T2. This results in switching OFF of T2 and also the relay and the corresponding load. The system thus restricts the dangerous voltage from reaching the load and safeguards it as expected from it. Now suppose the mains voltage goes too low, T1 is already switched OFF and at this situation T2 also stops conducting due to the settings of P2, which is set so that T2 stops conducting when the Mains input goes below a certain unsafe level. Thus the relay is once again tripped OFF, cutting of power to the load and prompting the required safety measures.

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CHAPTER 6

COMPONENTS AND THEIR SPECIFICATIONS

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6.1 KA7812E Fixed voltage regulator KA7812E is a 3-terminal 1A positive voltage regulator. The features of KA7812E TO-220 package are 1. Output current up to 1A 2. Output voltage of 12V 3. Thermal overload protection 4. Short circuit protection 5. Output transistor safe operating area protection 6. Output voltage tolerance of 4% 7. The operating temperature is from 0oC to +125oC Table 6.1 Electrical Characteristics of KA7812E Fixed Voltage Regulator

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6.2 TIP41A transistor

Fig.6.1 TIP41A TO-220 Package (Top View) Features Designed for complementary use with TIP42 series 65W at 25oC case temperature 6A continuous collector current 10A peak collector current

Table 6.2 Absolute maximum ratings of TIP41 series, Tc = 25oC unless otherwise noted

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From the above table, the TIP41A can be chosen for the use in the inverter circuit. 6.3 TIP42A transistor Its pin diagram is same as that of its complementary TIP41A and so are its features. Table 6.3 Absolute maximum ratings of TIP42 series, Tc = 25oC unless otherwise noted

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CHAPTER 7

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

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7.1 Introduction In the past wind turbines ran at almost constant speed with direct grid connection, but nowadays more and more wind turbines run at variable speed. With variable speed it is not possible to connect direct to the electricity grid. These wind turbines act on their own separated grids. An inverter controls this grid so the frequency of the alternating current can be varied. In this way its possible to rotate the turbine with varying speeds. The generator generates an alternating current with the same frequency, which is applied to the stator. Alternating current (AC) with a varying frequency cant be connected directly to the grid. That is why the alternating current is converted into a direct current (DC). For the conversion of AC to DC one can use a thyristor or large power transistors. The fluctuating DC will be converted to an AC with the same frequency as the grid. This can be done with an inverter. The inverter has a low efficiency because there is not a smooth sinus coming out of it. By filtering the signal you can make the sinus smooth, but it will not happen beautiful. As discussed in chapter 5 (page no.26), to implement the indirect grid connection of wind turbines, an ac to dc rectification and then the invert opertion of dc to ac conversion is required to get a fixed frequency and stabilized ac output to connect the wind energy conversion system to the grid. As already mentioned in chapter 5, sudden gusts of wind to the turbine result in high voltages which reach beyond the ratings of the equipment involved in the stabilizing process. To avoid the detrimental effects of these high voltages, an overvoltage protection circuit is mandatory. To implement the above mentioned circuits, a systematic and sequential approach is carried out and the resultant circuitry can be represented by the following block diagram in fig.7.1.

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Fig. 7.1 Block Diagram of the Proposed System To validate the proposed system shown in fig. 7.1, an experimental prototype of the uncontrolled rectifier and for the conventional inverter has been built and experimentally tested. Fig. 7.2 shows the experimental set up. The over voltage protection circuit, here, will warn of the detrimental high voltages in the circuit and thus protects it from being burnt off. The variable voltage ac is the representation of the wind generator which generates variable voltages owing to varying wind speeds. If this voltage is to be fed to the grid, one needs to stabilize the voltage. In order to that, this ac is given to an uncontrolled rectifier to convert it into rectified dc voltage. However, this dc is not in its pure form. So, the ac component and the harmonics are mitigated using a filter represented by a capacitor. This filtered dc voltage is given to the 12V voltage regulator in order to regulate the voltage to 12V DC. This DC voltage can be used to charge a 12V battery. Now, this DC voltage is inverted to AC with a frequency of 50Hz which is the system frequency. Thus variable voltage AC from wind generator is converted to fixed voltage, fixed frequency AC to be connected to the grid or to the load. 7.2 Experimental setup The following figure shows the experimental setup.

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Fig.7.2 Experimental Setup Initially, the output voltage of the induction generator which is variable AC is assumed to be represented by transformer-1 with tappings that can be varied in steps of 12V. In order to protect the rest of the circuit from over voltages exceeding 230V, an over voltage protection circuit using the transistors has been built. This overvoltage protection circuit consists of a relay which is inactive during normal voltages but it trips whenever the voltages exceed 230V. Thus it protects the rest of the circuit. The voltmeter in the above figure indicates the voltage at the primary of the transformer-2. Under normal voltages it indicates 230V and the LED glows milky white. In overvoltage conditions, it indicates 0V since the relay in the overvoltage protection circuit trips and the LED glows red. Under normal operation, the 230V A.C. voltage at the primary of the transformer-2 is stepped down to 24V. This stepped down voltage is then rectified to D.C. using an uncontrolled rectifier using 1N4007 diodes with 1A rating. This rectified output is then regulated to a constant magnitude D.C. voltage using KA7812 regulator. In between these stages, the
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rectified DC is passed through a filter designed using a 2200micro farad capacitor. The multimeter reading in the above figure indicates the 12V DC voltage after the regulating stage. The D.C. voltage is then converted to conventional A.C. of 50Hz frequency using the inverter to be fed to the resistive load represented by a lamp. 7.2.1 Overvoltage protection stage

Fig.7.3 Overvoltage Protection Stage The output voltage of the induction generator which is a variable AC is assumed to be represented by transformer-1 with tappings that can be varied in steps of 12V. In order to protect the rest of the circuit from over voltages exceeding 230V, an over voltage protection circuit using the transistors has been built. This overvoltage protection circuit consists of a relay which is inactive during normal voltages but it trips whenever the voltages exceed 230V. Thus it protects the rest of the circuit. The voltmeter in the above figure indicates the voltage at the primary of the transformer-2. Under normal voltages it indicates 230V and the LED glows milky white. In overvoltage conditions, it indicates 0V since the relay in the overvoltage protection circuit trips and the LED glows red.
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7.2.2 Rectifier and regulator stages

Fig. 7.4 230/24-0-24 V, 1A Transformer-2 The variable AC voltage from the transformer-1 is fed to the primary of the transformer-2 through the overvoltage protection circuit. This transformer-2 steps down the 230V at its primary to 24V or 48V at its secondary based on the tapping taken. In this model, we have taken 24V at the secondary to feed at the input of the uncontrolled rectifier. This stepped down voltage is then rectified to D.C. using an uncontrolled rectifier using 1N4007 diodes with 1A rating. The rectified voltage is 21V average. This rectified output is then regulated to a constant magnitude D.C. voltage using KA7812 regulator. In between these stages, the rectified DC is passed through a filter designed using a 2200micro farad capacitor. The multi-meter reading in the above figure indicates the 12V DC voltage after the regulating stage.

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Fig. 7.5 Rectifier and Regulator Stages 7.2.3 Inverter stage The oscillator circuit of the inverter consists of a 555 timer connected as an astable multivibrator. The output of the 555 which is taken from pin 3 drives the base of both the transistors T1 and T2 which switch current alternatively to the capacitor (2200uF) allowing it to charge. Thus, an output ac voltage of fixed frequency is obtained at the inverter stage. This ac voltage can be given to a lamp to see it glowing.

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Fig. 7.6 Inverter Stage Table 7.1 Output voltages at various stages Voltage from the Wind Generator (rms voltage) in volts Voltage at the primary of the step-down transformer (rms voltage) in volts Voltage at the secondary of the step-down transformer (rms voltage) in volts Rectified output voltage (average voltage) in volts Regulated output voltage (DC voltage) in volts Inverter output voltage (rms voltage) in volts 24 0 12 0 21 0 12 0 Normal operation 230 230 Overvoltage above 230 0

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CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSIONS

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CONCLUSIONS

From the report we studied that wind has a lot of potential in it and if properly harnessed then it can help solve the energy crises in the world. The study of wind turbine and its characteristics showed that how it can be properly designed and used to get the maximum output. This report showed the indirect integration of wind farms with the transmission grid that allows the wind generator to have a better performance. The simulation results showed us that a synchronous generator with the combination of a wind turbine seems economical when employed in rural areas. Then, this report also showed the experimental setup to stabilize the voltage from the wind generator. While doing this, the circuit was employed to protect the system from the detrimental effects of over voltages.

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REFERENCES

[1] WWEA, World Wind Energy Half Year Report 2011, WWEA (World Wind Energy Association), 2011. [2] H. Li and Z. Chen, Overview of Different Wind Generator Systems and Their Comparisons, Renewable Power Generation, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2008, pp. 123-138. [3] N. Mohan, et al., Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, 2002. [4] B.H.Chowdary, Srinivas Chellapilla, Doubly-fed induction generator for variable speed wind power generation Transactions on Electric Power System Research, Vol.76,pp. 786-800, Jan 2006. [5] L. Mott (NPS), B. Saulnier (IREQ) "Commercial Wind-Diesel Project, St. Paul Island, Alaska" 14th Prime Power Diesel Inter-Utility Conference, May 28-June 2, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. [5] en.wikipedia.org [6] www.otherpower.com [7] www.alldatasheet.com

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