R.Mogana et al.

/ Journal of Pharmacy Research 2011,4(8),2482-2489

Review Article ISSN: 0974-6943

Available online through www.jpronline.info

Canarium L. : A Phytochemical and Pharmacological Review

R.Mogana 1* and C.Wiart 2 School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, University of Nottingham(Malaysia Campus), Jln Broga, Semenyih, 43500, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia 2 School of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Science, University of Nottingham(Malaysia Campus), Jln Broga, Semenyih, 43500, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
1

Received on: 17-05-2011; Revised on: 12-06-2011; Accepted on:16-07-2011 ABSTRACT The genus Canarium L. consists of 75 species of aromatic trees which are found in the rainforests of tropical Asia, Africa and the Pacific. The medicinal uses, botany, chemical constituents and pharmacological activities are now reviewed. Various compounds are tabulated according to their classes their structures are given. Traditionally Canarium L. species have been used to treat a broad array of illnesses. Pharmacological actions for Canarium L. as discussed in this review include antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective and antitumor activity. Keywords: Canarium L., Burseraceae, antibacterial, antioxidant, pharmacology, secondary metabolites INTRODUCTION Canarium L. belongs to the family of Burseraceae Kunth. in the order Sapindales Juss. ex Bercht. & J. Pearl. This family consists of 18 genera and about 700 species of tropical trees[1]. The word Canarium L. derives from the Malay name kanari[2]. Canarium L. species often produce edible kernels, called canarium nut of commercial interest: Canarium indicum L., Canarium solomonense B.L.Burtt, Canarium harveyi Seem, Canarium odontophyllum Miq. and Canarium album L. Another economical interest of Canarium L. species, is the production of resins used in foods (Canarium luzonicum Miq.), in the making of incense and varnishing. In spite of these commercial potentials of Canarium L., little attention has been given to the collection and conservation of Canarium L. species [3]. The genetic diversity thus derogates at an alarming rate. BOT ANICAL DESCRIPTION The genus Canarium L. probably originated from the North American continent, not Gondwanaland [1]. This clade embraces 75 species of trees which are mainly found in tropical Asia and the Pacific, and a few species in tropical Africa [2]. About 9 species were found in the Philippines [2]. The geographical centre of their genetic diversity is the Molucca Islands of eastern Indonesia, but their centre of cultivated diversity is undoubtedly western Melanesia. Twenty to 25 species are found in the South Pacific, of which 21 are in Papua New Guinea [4], eight in the Solomon Islands [5] and 3 or 4 in Vanuatu [6]. The members of the genus Canarium L. consist of medium to large buttressed trees up to 40-50m tall, or rarely a shrub. The barks are greenish grey, fawn or light yellow brown that are usually smooth, scaly or dippled with many small lenticels. Outer bark are thin while the inner barks are pinkish brown or reddish brown, laminated, soft and aromatic with a clear sticky or rarely oily exudate. The stems are usually terete. The leaves are pinnate, spiral and stipulated. The rachis is terete flattened to channeled swollen at base, and bears 5-21 folioles. The folioles are oblique at base, entire, dentate or serrate at margin, often thick and acuminiate at apex. The secondary nerves are arching and joined near margin. The tertiary nerves are reticulate. The infloresence is an axillary or terminal panicle. The calyx is cupular. The corolla includes 3 creamy petals. The androecium comprises a whorl of 6 stamens. The disc within the stamens is 6 lobed. The gynaecium consist of 3 carpels united into a 3 lobular ovary. The drupes are seated on a persistent enlarged calyx and enclose a woody stone [7]. TRADITIONAL MEDICINAL USE Elemi (British Pharmaceutical Codex, 1934) is an oleoresin exuded through

the bark of Canarium luzonicum Miq. or Canarium commune L. which has been used in the form of an ointment as a stomach stimulant and as an expectorant [8]. The barks of Canarium indicum L. has been used for chest pains where else the oil has been patented for treatment of arthritis pain and the oleoresin of the tree is applied as a poultice for ulcerated wounds. The resin of Canarium tonkinense Engl. has been used as a stimulant, rubefacient and antirheumatic when applied externally. The oleoresin has been applied as ointment for ulcers [9]. The dried fruit of chinese olive or Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch. is used in China and used to treat bacterial and viral infections, inflammation, poisoning and for detoxification [10]. In Chinese folk medicine, the dried fruits of Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch have been used for treatment of angina, dysentery, snake bites, cough-hematemesis, enteritis, diarrhoea, toxicosis from swellfish and alcohol [11]. Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. is used by traditional healers as a remedy for diabetes mellitus in southern Senegal [12] while in Congo and Central African Republic the plant is used in fever, as stimulant, emollient, in post-partum pain, constipation, malaria, diarrhoea, sexual infections and rheumatism [13]. In Indonesia, the bark of Canarium littorale Bl. is used to make a decoction taken to heal haemorrhoids [3]. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS Isolation and structure elucidations of secondary metabolites in Canarium L. has been carried out since the 50s [14] Majority of investigations include the resin and the fruit of the species. To date about 99 compounds have been isolated from 9 species, which are Canarium schweinfurthii Engl., Canarium boivinii Engl. , Canarium odontophllum Miq., Canarium manii King., Canarium album (Lour) Raeusch, Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume, Canarium commune L., Canarium muelleri F.M. Bailey and Canarium bengalense Roxb. The extensively researched species are Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. and Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch [10,11,15-17] Among the secondary metabolites isolated from members of the genus Canarium L. are terpenes (monoterpenes, triterpenes, tetraterpenes like carotenoids, sesquiterpenes, cyclohexane and sterols), carboxylic acids, coumarins, furans, lipids and phenols (flavonoids, tannins, phenolic acids). The main secondary metabolites isolated so far from the genus Canarium L. consists of terpenes with 58 compounds and flavonoids with 11 compounds. The profile of all known secondary metabolites of Canarium L. as found in literature and their structures are included in Table 1. METHODS OF ISOLATION AND STRUCTURAL DETERMINATIONS The isolation and separation technique is very much dependent on the type of fractions. Essential oils are analysed with gas chromatography (GC) and mass spectroscopy (MS) [13,18,19]. Other substances are separated with liquid chromatography using different solvent mixtures with silica gel [20,21], charcoal [22], sephadex [11] and multiple column packing such as AB-8 adsorption resin, polyamide, and TSK Toyopearl HW-40(S). Other types of analytical techniques include thin layer chromatography (TLC) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) [10,17,23-25].

*Corresponding author.
R.Mogana PhD researcher, School of Pharmacy Faculty of Science, University of Nottingham, Malaysia Tel: +60126301892 Email: [email protected]

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Table 1. Secondary metabolites of Canarium L.
Compound name Species Chemical Structure Plant Formula Number part C10 H20 O2 C9 H12 O2 C11 H10 O4 C10 H8 O4 C6 H6 O2 C8 H18 O C16 H32 O2 C18 H34 O2 C18 H32 O2 C18 H32 O4 C18 H34 O2 C18 H32 O2 C10 H22 O C12 H26 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Reference Compound name Species Chemical Formula Structure Number Plant Reference part PHENOLS FLAVONOIDS Luteolin Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Luteolin-7-O--D-glucoside Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Quercetin Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Quercetin-3-O--D-glucoside Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Kaempferol Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch 7,8,3',4'-tetrahydroxyflavanoneCanarium album (Lour.) Raeusch 3,5,7,3'-tetrahydroxy-4'Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch methoxyflavanonol Hyperin/Quercetin-3Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch galactoside Kaempferol-3-glucoside Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Amentoflavone Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Agathisflavone Canarium manii King. PHENOLIC ACIDS Sinapic acid Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Corilagin Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Gallic acid Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Ellagic acid Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Brevifolin carboxylic acid 3-O-galloyl quinic acid butyl ester 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid ethyl ether 2-hydroxybenzoic acid TANNINS Ethyl gallate Methyl gallate Elemicin SAPONINS HYDROXY ACIDS Elemadienonic acid TERPENES - CYCLOHEXANE Limonene Furfuryl butanoate MONOTERPENES -pinene -Pinene Myrcene -Fenchene p-1-Menthene -3-Carene -Terpinene cis-Sabinene hydrate Terpinolene Linalool cis-p-Menth-2-en-1-ol trans-p-Menth-2-en-1-ol Terpinen-4-ol -Terpineol cis-Piperitone Isobornyl acetate 1,8-cineole Citronellyl acetate Neryl acetate Decyl Acetate -pinene/-pinene Carvone -phellandrene
HO O

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS Octyl acetate Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. 2,5-Dimethoxytoluene Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. COUMARINS Scoparone Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Scopoletin Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS- FURANS 2-acetylfuran Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. n-octanol Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. LIPIDS Hexadecanoic acid Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. 9-octadecenoic acid Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. 6,9-octadecadienoic acid Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. 9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Oleic acid(cis-C18:1n9) Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Linoleic acid(cis-C18:2n6) Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. n-decanol Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. n-dodecanol Canarium schweinfurthii Engl.
O

resin,oil resin,oil fruit fruit resin,oil resin,oil fruit,oil fruit,oil fruit,oil fruit,oil fruit,oil fruit,oil resin, oil resin,oil

[13] [13] [38] [38] [13] [13] [39] [39] [39] [39] [40] [40] [13] [13]

C15 H10 O6 C21 H20 O11 C15 H10 O7 C21 H19 O12 C15 H10 O6

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

fruit fruit fruit fruit fruit fruit fruit

[11] [11] [11] [11] [11] [11] [11]

C21 H20 O12 C21 H20 O11 C30 H18 O10 C30 H18 O10 C11 H12 O5 C27 H22 O18 C7 H6 O5 C14 H6 O8 C13 H8 O8 C18 H24 O10 C9 H10 O4 C7 H6 O3 C9 H10 O5 C8 H8 O5 C12 H16 O3 C30 H46 O3 C10 H16

dried stem, [27],10] leaf,fruit fruit [10] fruit [10] stem,bark [21] fruit [17] fruit [10] fruit [38],[10] dried [27] stem,leaf fruit [17] fruit [16] fruit fruit fruit fruit fruit resin resin [11] [11] [11],[10] [10] [34] [41] [14]

Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium commune L. Canarium boivinii Engl. Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Canarium boivinii Engl. Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Canarium boivinii Engl. Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume

1
O

2
O

HO

3
O

resin,oil [13] resin [20,41] oleoresin resin,oil resin resin resin resin resin resin resin resin resin resinresin,oil [13]

C9 H12 O3 C10 H16 C10 H16 C10 H16 C10 H16 C10 H18 C10 H16 C10 H16 C 10 H18 O C10 H16 C10 H18 O C10 H18 O C10 H18 O C10 H18 O C10 H18 O C10 H16 O2 C12 H20 O2 C10 H18 O C12 H22 O2 C12 H20 O2 C12 H24 O2 C10 H16 C10 H14 O C10 H16 C10 H16 C10 H18 O

O H
6 5
O

O
OH

OH
8

OH

HO

-phellandrene Terpineol

[18] [18] [18] [18] [18] [18] [18] [18] [18] [18] [13] resin [18] resin [18] resin [18] resin [18] resin,oil [13] resin [18] resin [18] reisn,oil [13] resin,oil [13] resin,oil [13] resin,oil [13] Resin [20,41] Oleoresin, timber oleoresin [20] oleoresin, [20] bark,timber oleoresin, [20] bark,timber oleoresin, [20] bark
OH

11
OH OH
OH O O O

10

OH

OH

HO

O
OH O

H O OH

OH OH O

OH OH

HO

12
OH

15
HO O

16

13
OH

OH

14

OH

17

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OH

OH
O H

O OH

HO

H O
O OH

O HO OH O HO O

H O

O
O HO O

H O
OH
O OH

27
OH O

OH

HO OH OH

OH

18
H O
OH
OH

28
O

17
OH O OH

HO

O
O OCH3 OH

OH O

H O

HO

29

OH
HO

OH
OH
O

OH O

19
OH OH

20
OH

O HO

H O

OH HO
O

30
HO O

O HO C OCH2CH2CH2 C 3 H OH O HO
OH

HO

O
O
O OH

O
OH

31
O OH C

OH

O O

OH

O O OH

OH

H O

OH

OH
HO OH

OH

32
HO O O

21
O OH HO HO O
HO O O

22

OH

OH HO

33
OH

OH H O

OH

34
OH O HO

OH

OH OH

H O

HO O
HO

35 23
O

CH 2CH3
O

O HO C

24
O

36

CH3

Cl O
O

37
O OH O O OH O

H 2C O CH3 H

25

HO

H O OH

HO O O

OH OH

CH3

CH3

HO OH

OH

26

H3C

CH 3

38

OH

39

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O

O O
O

39
O

60 41

40 63 62

61

OH

43 42
H

44
Compound name TRITERPENES -amyrin/-amyrin/ (urs-12-en-3-ol) -amyrin(olean12-en-3-ol)

64
Species Chemical Formula C30 H50 O

65
Structure Plant Number part 66 Dried stem, leaf Resin oleoresin, bark,timber dried stem, leaf Resin oleoresin, bark,timber dried stem, leaf dried stem, leaf oleoresin oleoresin bark dried stem,leaf dried stem, leaf peel,pulp, peel,pulp, peel,pulp, peel,pulp, peel,pulp, peel,pulp, resin resin resin oleoresin resin resin resin Resin resin,oil resin, oil resin resin,oil oleoresin, bark oleoresin, bark dried stem, leaf resin oleoresin, bark,timber bark oleoresin, bark seed seed seed seed seed seed Reference

OH

45

46

Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium boivinii Engl. Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium boivinii Engl. Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume

[20,32,41]

C30 H50 O

67

[20,32,41]

48 47 49

HO

OH

50 51
HO

52

HO

3-epi- -amyrin 3-epi--amyrin -Amyrenone (urs12-en-3-one) -Amyrenone (olean12-en-3-one) Taraxerol urs-12-ene-3, 16-diol olean-12-ene-3, 16 diol TETRATERPENES CAROTENOIDS All-trans-lutein 9-cis-lutein 13-cis-lutein 15-cis--carotene 9-cis--carotene All-trans--carotene SESQUITERPENES -Cubenene -Copaene -Cubebene Canaric acid (E)--Caryophyllene -Humelene Germacrene D Spathulenol Viridiflorol Caryophyllene epoxide (E)- Nerolidol Elemene Elemol Brevifolin -Elemene STEROLS Sitosterol -sitosterol Neoilexonol (3Hydroxyurs -12en-11-one)

Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium odontophyllum Miq. Canarium odontophyllum Miq. Canarium odontophyllum Miq. Canarium odontophyllum Miq. Canarium odontophyllum Miq. Canarium odontophyllum Miq. Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium muelleri F.M. Bailey Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume Canarium benglense Roxb. Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) Blume

C30 H50 O C30 H50 O C30 H48 O C30 H48 O C30 H50 O C30 H50 O2 C30 H50 O2 C40 H56 O2 C40 H56 O2 C40 H56 O2 C40 H56 C40 H56 C40 H56 C15 H24 C15 H24 C15 H24 C30 H48 O2 C15 H24 C15 H24 C15 H24 C15 H24 O C15 H26 O C15 H24 O C15 H26 O C15 H24 C15 H26 O C10 H12 O4 C15 H24 C29 H50 O C29 H50 O C30 H48 O2

68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98

[32] [32] [20] [20] [20] [32] [32] [29] [29] [29] [29] [29] [29] [18] [18] [18] [20,22] [18] [18] [18] [13,18] [13] [18] [13] [20] [20] [27] [18] [20] [42] [20]

53
OH
O

54
H
H

55
O
O O

56
O
H3 C

CH 3

H3C

CH3

57
CH3 C H3 CH3 H HO H CH3

CH3

C H3

C3 H H

58
O

HO H

CH3

H3 C

CH3

59

66

H3 C

C 3 H

67

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CH3

H3C
H3C

C3 H
HO O H

C 3 H

CH3

CH3

75
CH3 CH3 C3 H H H HO CH3
HO

H H H O H3C CH3 C3 H

76

HC 3

C3 H

68

69
HO

H O H

77 78

70
H O

H
79

H
71 80
HO H H
H

72

CH3

H3C

81

82

C 3 H

CH3

CH3 OH
H3 C CH3

H H

H HO H3C CH3

C 3 H

73
C 3 H CH3

CH3 OH

83
H

CO OH

84

H HO H3C CH3

C 3 H

74

HH H H

85

86

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H

OH
H

The structures are mainly established by mass spectroscopy (MS), ultra-violet spectroscopy (UV), infrared spectroscopy (IR) and 1H and/or 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). 1H and/or 13C spectroscopy is probably the most useful method in structure elucidation [21]. PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES Only 12% of 75 species have been studied for their pharmacological activities. Extracts and pure compounds derived from Canarium L. were reported to have a variety of pharmacological activities of which antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, analgesic and anti-diabetic (Table 2). Antioxidant Antioxidant activities were reported in Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch, Canarium odontophyllum Miq., Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. and Canarium patentinervium Miq. A tonic soup made of Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch used mainly in China displayed significant antioxidant activity by 1,1,-diphenyl-2-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay [26]. Tannins extracted from the leaves, twigs and stem barks of Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch showed potent antioxidant activity in the DPPH radical scavenging activity with IC50 values of 56.86 g/ml, 62.31 g/ ml and 54.80 g/ml respectively and ferric reducing power of 4.28, 3.74 and 4.49 mmol AAE/g equivalent of dried tannin [15]. Pure compounds from this species includes brevifolin, hyperin and ellagic acid which showed free radical scavenging activity in DPPH assay [27]. The essential oil of Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. was tested for the antioxidant activity with the DPPH assay and by -carotene bleaching test. It exhibited highest antioxidant activity at 150 g/ml activity in both assay [28]. The ethyl acetate fraction of peel of Canarium odontophyllum Miq. exhibited 951.00% scavenging activity at the concentration of 40g/ml [25,29]. The bark and leaf ethanol extracts of Canarium patentinervium Miq. exhibited excellent antioxidant activities in the DPPH assay with EC50 value of 2.33 g/ ml and 2.93g/ml . It exhibited 77.800.01 and 65.800.01 % DPPH radical scavenging activity at the concentration of 10g/ml [30]. Antibacterial and antifungal activities Antibacterial activities were reported in Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. and Canarium patentinervium Miq. Dichloromethane extract of Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. had bactericidal activity against Gram-negative Vibrio cholerae with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.62mg/ml while the ethylacetate extract was active against Gram- positive and Gram-negative bacteria namely Staphylococcus aureus and Proteus vulgaris with MIC values of 10mg/ml and 5mg/ml respectively. Ethanol extract was active against Gram-negative Vibrio cholerae and Proteus vulgaris with MIC values of 0.62mg/ml and 10mg/ml respectively [31]. In a separate disc diffusion assay, the essential oil of Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. abrogated the survival of Gram-negative Salmonella enterica, Grampositive Streptococcus pyogens and Staphylococcus aureus with an inhibition zone of 27mm, 25mm and 18mm respectively. However the author did not inform on the concentration of the extract per disc. The oil was also fungicidal against Candida albicans with an inhibition zone of 23mm [28]. The ethanol extract of leaves and barks and hexane extract of barks of Canarium patentinervium Miq, exhibited significant antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Gram-negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa . The highest sensitivity obtained was with the ethanol extract of leaves which inhibited the growth of Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Gram-negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa with an inhibition zone of 14mm, 13mm, 13mm and 15mm respectively. Disc diffusion assay was done at a concentration of 2mg/disc and the extracts were more active than ampicillin and streptomycin [30] Hepatoprotective activities Hepatoprotective activity was exhibited in Canarium manii King. and Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch. The biflavanoid agathisflavone from Canarium manii King. preserved the integrity of the liver cells membrane of rodents as evidenced by the decrease in the CCl4-induced rise of glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT) and glutamic pyruvic transaminase (GPT) levels. GPT which is predominantly found in the liver showed a dose-dependent and significant reduction [21]. The triterpenes urs-12-ene-3a,16-diol, olean-12-ene-3a,16-diol and urs-

H
H

HO

H H

87

88

89

OH

91 90
O

HO H

93 91

O HO O

HO OH

95

94

H HO H H

96

H H O H H

97

O H HO

98

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Table 2. Biological and pharmacological acitivities (in vitro and in vivo) of Canarium L. extracts and pure constituents
Extract/Compound In Vitro Models Polymeric procyanidins(tannins) from leaves, twigs and stem bark Ethyl acetate fraction of the fruit peel Carotenoids from peel,pulp and seed extracts Essential oil of resins Essential oil of resins(monoterpenes hydrocarbon) brevifolin, ellagic acid and hyperin Ethanol extracts of leaves and barks Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium odontophyllum Miq. Canarium odontophyllum Miq. Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium patentinervium Miq. Significant DPPH radical scavenging activity, Ferric reducing antioxidant activity Antioxidant activity with DPPH assay, FRAP assay and hemoglobin oxidation assay Significant antioxidant activity with beta-carotene bleaching assay, ABTS assay, DPPH assay and hemoglobin oxidation assay Bactericidal for E.faecalis, L.innocua, S.enterica, S.aureus, S. camorum.Fungicidal for C.albicans Antioxidant for DPPH and -carotene bleaching test Significant anti-inflammatory activity via lipooxygenase method with IC50 of 62.6ppm Significant antioxidant activity and inhibitory effect on lipid peroxidation assay Significant antimicrobial activity via disc diffusion assay against S.aureus, B.cereus, methicillin-resistant S.aureus and P.aeruginosa Significant antioxidant activity in DPPH assay with EC 50 of 2.93g/ml and 2.33g/ml respectively Singnificant antitumor activity against breast cancer cell line MDA468 Antimicrobial activity against V.cholerae Antioxidant activities in DPPH and FRAP assay Hepatoprotective activity against experimentallyinduced carbon tetrachloride-hepatotoxicity in rats and mice Hepatoprotective activity in primary cultured rat hepatocytes intoxicated with D-galactosamine Reduction of carbon tetrachloride induced liver damage in mice. Reduction in elevated GPT and GOT levels after intraperitoneal administration Significant analgesic effect using acetic acid-induced writhing and hot plate methods with swiss mice Anti-diabetic activity that reverses hyperglycemia, polyphagia and polydipsia in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Significant reduction of 69.9% reduction in blood glucose level after 14 days at 300mg/kg [15] [29] [25] [28] [19] [27] [30] Species Pharmacological activity References

Chloroform and ethanol extract of barks Dichloromethane extract of barks Extract of whole plant In Vivo Models agathisflavone (biflavanoid) urs-12-ene-3a, 16-diol, olean-12-ene-3a, 16 diol (triterpene) brevifolin, ellagic acid

Canarium patentinervium Miq.. Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium manii King. Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch

[33] [31] [26] [21] [32] [27] [13] [12]

Essential oil of resins(composed mainly of nerolidol and octylacetate)Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. Methanol/methylene chloride extract of stem barks Canarium schweinfurthii Engl.

12-ene-3,16-diol from from Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch markedly reduced the amount of alanine aminotransferase leakage from the primary cultured hepatocytes intoxicated with 0.2mM of D-galactosamine (GaIN) [32]. The phenols brevifolin and ellagic acid protected rat hepatocytes against GaIN-induced insults [27]. Other Biological Activities The essential oil of Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. collected from the region of Cameroon inhibited the enzymatic activity of lipoxygenase with an IC50 value of 62.6ppm [19]. However in a separate study of the same species collected from central African region did not show any activity in the cotton pellet induced granuloma formation experiment [13]. This may suggest possible evidence of variety between secondary metabolites constituents according to regions. The essential oil of Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. at a dose of 1, 2 and 3 mg/ kg i.p. displayed potent analgesic effect in the acetic acid-induced writhing and hot plate experiments [13]. Anti-diabetic activity was reported in the methanol/methylene chloride extract of stem bark of Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. At a dose of 300mg/kg there was 67.1% reduction in blood glucose levels after a once daily subcutaneous injection on streptozotocin-induced diabetic male rats over 14 days, versus insulin that had 76.8% reduction. Weight gain was only 6.6% as opposed to untreated rats that had lost 14.1% of body weight. There was also significant reduction in food and fluid consumption by 68.5% and 79.7%. These results showed the extract could reverse hyperglycemia, polyphagia and polydipsia provoked by streptozotocin, thus having anti-diabetic activity [12]. Antitumor potential was demonstrated by the chloroform and ethanol extract of bark of Canarium patentinervium Miq. significant with GI 50 value of 23.44 g/ml and 34.40 g/ml respectively via the MTT biological assay. Extracts were most sensitive to the breast cancer cell line MDA 468 [33]. Commercial uses of Canarium L. Produces Elemi derived from the Arabic Al-lami is a collective term applied to several oleoresins obtained from different plants of the family Burseraceae Kunth. The most important and widely known of these oleoresins is Manila Gum Elemi which exudates from the trunk of Canarium luzonicum Miq. or Canarium commune L. The natural constituent of elemi oil is elemicin. Variety of foodstuffs are flavoured with elemi oil and in Europe its used in spices and seasonings. In US elemi oil is also used in fragrances to approximately 1000lb/ year [34].

At present, at least 4 species of Canarium L. nuts are of economic importance. Canarium ovatum Engl. (known locally as pili and pilaui) is the most important nut-producing species in the Philippines. Canarium luzonicum Miq. most commonly known in the Philippines as pisa and basiad, is important, not as an edible nut but for its oily resin (known locally as sahing), which is tapped from the trunk. When processed, it is called brea blanca(white pitch) and is exported as Manila elemi Canarium indicum L. is an important nut-producing species in the Solomon Islands (locally called ngali), Papua New Guinea (locally called galip) and Vanuatu (where it is known as nangai) [5]. Canarium album (Lour) Raeusch., known in English as Chinese olive, samo cheen in Thailand and tram trang in Vietnam, is important in these countries for its edible pulp and kernel [35]. In Melanesia, marketing operations for Canarium indicum L. and Canarium harveyi Seem. range from private and community based production, processing, and marketing of kernel oil for cosmetic and medicinal use, to government-backed nationwide purchasing of kernels for sale as confections and oil. Canarium solomonense B.L. Burtt in the Solomons islands are used as generalpurpose timber [36]. Because of the potential of Canarium L. as a high-value export crop for nuts (for confections) and/or oil extraction, some research is being done on its taxonomy, production and marketing. Additional research needs include selection, evaluation, and improvement of promising varieties for timber production, investigation of cultural aspects, phenological studies, and vegetative propagation [37] CONCLUSION This review highlights the fact that only about 12% of the total Canarium L. species have been studied for chemistry and pharmacological activities. The diversity of secondary metabolites and pharmacological actions reviewed in this work demonstrate that there is much to be discovered in this family. Indeed, as compared to many other genus in this family, Canarium L. is still very much under studied. This could be explained by the fact that Canarium L. species are mainly found in primary rainforest where they face extinction due to intensive logging and little conservation. There is therefore a compelling need to study Canarium L. species which may shelter some drugs for the future. REFERENCES
[1] Weeks A, Daly DC, and Simpson BB. (2005) The phylogenetic history and biogeography of the frankincense and myrrh family (Burseraceae) based on nuclear and

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[32] [33] [34] [35]

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Source of support: Nil, Conflict of interest: None Declared

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