AER 423: A PPLIED T HERMODYNAMICS & H EAT T RANSFER L ABORATORY M ANUAL

by

J. V. Lassaline

Ryerson University Department of Aerospace Engineering

Copyright c 2007

Copyright c January 22, 2007 J. V. Lassaline Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled GNU Free Documentation License

History
1. Lassaline, J. V. 2005. AER 423: Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer Laboratory Manual. Ryerson University. Initial publication. Source for this version available at http://www.ryerson.ca/jvl/aer423.

Acknowledgements
This document is based upon the laboratory manuals produced for Ryerson University courses MEC 309 Thermodynamics, MEC 514 Applied Thermodynamics and MEC 701 Heat Transfer. The author is indebted to the (alphabetically listed) authors R. Churaman, J. Dimitriu, J. Karpynczyk, D. Naylor, R. Pope, and J. C. Tysoe for their work on these previous manuals.

Contents
1 Instructions 1.1 Organization of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Common Mistakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Air Nozzle 2.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Calculations and Discussion 2.6 Experimental Data . . . . . Gas Turbine 3.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Calculations and Discussions 3.6 Experimental Data . . . . . 1 1 1 3 5 5 5 6 7 7 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 13 15 15 15 16 16 16 17 19 19 19 20 20 21 22 23 23 23 24

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Thermal Conductivity and Contact Resistance 4.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Calculations and Discussion . . . . . . . . 4.6 Experimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Forced Convection From a Cylinder in Cross Flow 5.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Calculations and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Experimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Numerical Simulation 6.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iii

6.4 6.5 6.6

Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculations And Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Experimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25 30 30 32 32 33 35 35 35 36 36 36 37 37 37 37 37 37

A Errors and Corrections A.1 Error Estimation and Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.2 Barometer Corrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B GNU Free Documentation License 1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . 2. VERBATIM COPYING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. COPYING IN QUANTITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. MODIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . 7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS . . . 8. TRANSLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9. TERMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE . . . . . . . ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents

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iv

List of Tables
4.1 5.1 Thermal Conductivity of Common Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Constants of Eq. 5.1 from Hilpert (1933). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 20 33 34

A.1 Temperature correction for Hg and brass barometers in BG units. Corrections in [in]. . . . . . . . . . A.2 Temperature correction for Hg and brass barometers in SI units. Corrections in [mm]. . . . . . . . .

List of Figures
2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 A convergent-divergent nozzle schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nozzle test rig schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A gas turbine schematic with Brayton cycle approximation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rover 1S/60 gas turbine airmeter calibration where x0 = 15.3 in2 is the airmeter effective area, ma is the air mass ow rate in [lbm/s], T1 is the air inlet temperature in [K], and pa is barometric pressure in [psi]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . One-dimensional heat conduction along a composite bar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic diagram of the Cussons Thermal Conductivity Apparatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forced convection from a circular cylinder in cross ow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Low speed wind tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Temperature distribution of a cooling cylinder as a function of radius and time. . . . . . . . . . . . . Discrete temperature distribution on region r [0, ro ] at time tn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 6 10

14 15 16 19 20 23 24

4.1 4.2 5.1 5.2 6.1 6.2

vi

Nomenclature
The following nomenclature is used throughout this text with common S.I. units given if applicable. Alphanumeric Symbols A area, m2 BSF C brake specic fuel consumption, [kg/W hr] D diameter, [m] h convection heat transfer coefcient, W/m2 k ratio of specic heats, [] k thermal conductivity, [W/mK] m mass ow rate, [kg/s] N rotational speed, [rpm] Nu Nusselt number, [] p pressure, N/m2 Pr Prandtl number, [] q rate of heat transfer, [W ] Re Reynolds number, [] T temperature, [K] t time, [s] U speed, [m/s] V speed, [m/s] V volume, m3 W power, [W ] x rst cartesian coordinate direction, [m] Greek Symbols efciency, [] kinematic viscosity, [kg/ms] density, kg/m3 temperature difference, [K] Subscripts 0 relating to stagnation conditions relating to free stream conditions D relating to cylinder diameter s relating to solid surface conditions t relating to nozzle throat

vii

Chapter 1

Instructions
1.1 Organization of This Book

This book is divided into several sections, including instructions for writing lab reports, the background and procedure for each lab experiment, and a set of appendices. It is highly recommended that you review the guidelines for completing the written lab reports prior to your rst laboratory session. You are also expected to have read and be familiar with each experiment before attending your scheduled lab. The appendices include valuable information regarding estimating the errors associated with your experimental observations and calculations. These skills are useful not only for the laboratory component of this course, but for future experimental reporting as well.

1.2

Reports

You are reminded that all of the required course-specic written reports/assignments/labs will be assessed not only on their technical/academic merit, but also on the communication skills exhibited through them. You should make note of the following requirements regarding the formal laboratory reports. Reports must demonstrate your understanding of the experiment and background theory. A clear presentation of your observations and results is critical. Anyone reading your report with a similar education to your own should be able to reproduce your results using the same equipment. Lab reports will normally be completed by groups and must reect the contribution of each group member. It is up to you to ensure that every group member contributes equally. In the event of an unresolvable conict, students may only switch groups mid-term with prior instructor approval. You must attend the laboratory session in order to receive credit for the lab report. Missed labs will require adequate proof presented to the department ofce. You are also expected to arrive promptly for your scheduled laboratory session. Remember, if you are going to miss a laboratory session, test, or exam, always contact your instructor immediately! Reports must be typeset (e.g. prepared with a word processor.) Reports that are handwritten will not be accepted, though some sections of the report may be handwritten as noted below. Reports should be formatted with 1 margins, a 12pt font, and with 1.5 to 2 (i.e. double) spacing on standard 8.5 by 11 paper. Reports must be at least stapled to form one cohesive report. No special binding is required however loose-paged documents will not be accepted. As a minimum, each lab report must contain: A title page indicating the title of the experiment, the name(s), student number(s), section and date the experiment was performed.

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The body of the report consisting of the following sections: Objective Describe the purpose of this experiment in one paragraph. Theory Concise discussion of the background theory governing this experiment. Apparatus Briey list the equipment used. A simple diagram of the equipment is advisable. You may reproduce diagrams from this manual but you must cite the source! Procedure Discuss the procedure used to complete the experiment. Describe the process taken during your experiment and not just a regurgitation of the lab manual. Using your lab report and the equipment described in the Apparatus section, anyone should be able to reproduce your results. Note any anomalies in your procedure relative to the instructions in this manual. Observations Clearly indicate all values measured during this experiment including an estimate of the error. Use tables and/or graphs when appropriate. Always indicate the errors (if any) present in your measurements! Results Based upon the formulae presented in your Theory section, present the results of the calculations outlined in the lab manual. Discuss your results and answer any discussion questions indicated in this manual. Tabulate and/or graph your results as appropriate. Always calculate and indicate the errors present in your calculations as indicated in this manual! Methods for determining error propagation are shown in Appendix A.1. Conclusions Provide a brief summary of your experiment and results. References Cite all references, including this lab manual using proper citations. A preferred citation method is the author-date format (University of Chicago 2003), although numbered references are acceptable. For example, a citation to this lab manual using the author-date system would appear in the text as follows . . . as presented in the lab manual (Lassaline 2005). Blah blah blah. . . and the References section would contain the following: Coyote, W. E. 1976. Application of the ACME rocket booster. Modern Rocketry. Los Angles: WB Press Ltd. Lassaline, J. V. 2005. AER 423: Applied Thermodynamics & Heat Transfer Laboratory Manual. Ryerson University. Alternatively, numbered references should be presented in the text as follows . . . as presented in the lab manual [2]. Blah blah blah. . . with the References containing the corresponding enumerated list of sources. [1] C OYOTE , W. E. Application of the ACME rocket booster. Modern Rocketry. Los Angles: WB Press Ltd. 1976. [2] L ASSALINE , J. V. AER 423: Applied Thermodynamics & Heat Transfer Laboratory Manual. Ryerson University. 2005. An appendix which should contain the following section(s): Sample Calculations Demonstrate all the calculations necessary to obtain your results. If one type of calculation is repeated many times only one sample is required using your experimental values. May be hand-written. Graphs/Tables (optional) If you have a large number of graphs or tables in either your Observations or Results section, you may optionally place them in the appendix and refer to them by either page number or label (e.g. Table A-1, Fig. A.2, etc.) Equations should follow a clear nomenclature (e.g. density v.s. pressure p) and should be numbered at either the right or left hand margin. For example, p 1 2 + V + gz = const 2 (1.1)

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If your word processor is capable of writing equations clearly then use this feature, but it is acceptable to leave adequate space and add the equations by hand. The technical writing of lab. reports is expected to be of high quality and concise. Excluding the title page, gures and tables of values, the main body of your report should not exceed four pages. Graphs and tables must be clearly presented and must be labelled (e.g. Table 1, Fig. 2) including an appropriate caption. Axes labels, a title, error bars (if applicable) and a legend (if appropriate) must be present. Computer generated plots are preferred, but hand-drawn plots on graph paper are acceptable. Lab reports will normally be marked out of 10, awarded as follows technical writing, presentation, grammar and spelling proper presentation of observations, including errors (if applicable) proper presentation of results, including errors (if applicable) sample calculations conclusion and discussion Total 3 2 2 1 2 10

1.3

Common Mistakes

Every year students will miss an opportunity to maximize their mark by making needless mistakes. Some hints as to how you can avoid making the same mistakes are as follows. Show up for each and every lab on time. The penalties for missing a lab are outlined by your instructor at the beginning of the year. The experiments are set so that you may improve upon your understanding of what you have learned from the lectures. Dont waste your time or, worse, the time of your classmates. Answer all the discussion questions and perform all the requested calculations as outlined in the lab manual. The calculations and discussion questions are clearly listed for each experiment. Check that your lab report is complete before you submit it. Provide suitable references and make proper citations. There is some exibility in how you present your references, but it is best to use a common scientic citation style. If in doubt, use the same style as used for references in this lab manual. An excellent reference on accepted writing styles is The Chicago Manual of Style (University of Chicago 2003). Dont forget to reference the source of your gures. A good rule of thumb is: if its not yours, cite the source! Dont use footnotes for citations. Footnotes should only be used for adding extraneous information that would interfere with the ow of your text or occasionally to reference an unusual source.1 Web sites are poor (and volatile) references. While the Internet may be useful for general information and handy diagrams, the information presented on most Web sites is not peer reviewed as are text books, encyclopedia, journal papers, or conference proceedings. Check your grammar and spelling. Most word processors have at least a spell-check feature. Note that 30% of your lab report mark is based upon your technical writing skills. Dont plagiarize this manual verbatim in your lab report. For example, the procedure you used during your experiment may differ from that outlined in this manual. Use your own words and ideas. You are not given marks on how accurately you can copy the text of this manual. If you wish to quote a section of this manual then provide a citation. Feel free to look at previous years lab reports as a guide but do not plagiarize! Plagiarism is a violation of the Student Code of Conduct and will be dealt with harshly.
1 For

example, the denition of extraneous, as used in this context, is not forming an essential or vital part.

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Work together as a group. If different members of your group are responsible for different sections of the report, make sure that everyone is clear on their respective duties. It is your responsibility to ensure that your report is a cohesive document and is completed on time. If something is not clear, ask your instructor or TA for clairication, but dont wait until the last moment!

Chapter 2

Air Nozzle
2.1 Objective

The objective of this lab is to demonstrate the laws governing compressible ow in a convergent-divergent nozzle. This experiment will demonstrate the effect of back pressure on the ow within the nozzle and the concept of choked ow. In addition, the presence of shock waves within the nozzle ow will be demonstrated.

2.2

Theory

Consider a nozzle formed from a convergent-divergent duct as in Fig. 2.1 drawing air from a large reservoir at xed pressure p0 with back pressure pb downstream of the exit. For a rocket nozzle, the back pressure is the atmospheric pressure, which decreases with altitude. convergent section divergent section For this experiment the back pressure is controlled by a valve downstream of the nozzle exit. As we will see in this experiment, the back pressure can be shown to inuence the mass ow rate through the nozzle. reservoir back pressure pi pe throat If pb = p0 there would be no ow and thus the p0 pb mass ow rate would be zero. If the back pressure is decreased, the uid will accelerate from V 0 in the reservoir up to a maximum velocity at the narrowest portion of the nozzle (throat). If the back pressure continues to decrease, the throat velocity Vt and mass ow rate will continue to increase until the Figure 2.1: A convergent-divergent nozzle schematic Mach number at the throat reaches sonic Mt = 1 and pressure pt = p . As the local Mach number cannot increase beyond unity in a converging section, reducing the back pressure further will not increase the mass ow rate. At this point the ow is considered to be choked. Reducing pb further has no effect upon the conditions in the nozzle upstream of the throat. For choked ow, the theoretical mass ow rate can be determined from the reservoir (stagnation) pressure and throat pressures. If the expansion from the reservoir to the throat is isentropic then for choked ow (Mt = 1) the ratio of throat to stagnation pressure can be written as pt p = = p0 p0 2 k+1
k k1

(2.1)

for calorically perfect air where the ratio of specic heats k = 1.4.1
1 Note that the symbol

(dimensionless) may also be used in place of k which should not be confused with thermal conductivity k ([W/m K]).

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P2 Air in

Steam in

Handwheel V3 V4

V1 R1 V2

V7 OrificePlate Flowmeter

Condenser

Inclined Manometer

Figure 2.2: Nozzle test rig schematic

Using the isentropic property relations, we can also write the ratio of throat to stagnation temperature as Tt = T0 pt p0
k1 k

To determine the theoretical mass ow rate m = VA we need to know the average uid velocity, the cross sectional area and the uid density at the throat. Applying an energy rate balance and ignoring gravity, we can determine the throat air speed using Vt = 2cp (T0 Tt ) (2.3)

where T0 is the reservoir temperature and Tt is the temperature at the throat. The uid density at the throat can be determined using the ideal gas law.

2.3

Apparatus

The nozzle apparatus, as illustrated in Fig. 2.2, can be operated with either air or steam, however for this experiment only air will be studied. Compressed air is fed into a steam chest and then passes through a polished convergentdivergent nozzle with a throat diameter of 0.191 [in]. A search tube of 0.13 [in] diameter aligned with the nozzle axis is mounted on a carrier such that it may be traversed along the axis of the nozzle. A high-grade pressure gauge attached to the top of the search tube registers the pressure at a small hole (pressure tap) drilled perpendicular to the tube axis. The location of the pressure tap may advanced in 0.1 [in] steps by rotating a setting wheel attached to the search tube carrier. At the upper limit, the pressure tap is clear of the nozzle and registers the pressure in the inlet chest. At the lower limit the pressure tap registers the pressure downstream of the nozzle. The position of the pressure tap is indicated by a pointer and scale prole of the nozzle mounted on the apparatus. The nozzle discharges into a vertical pipe of 2 [in] bore tted with a valve for controlling the downstream back pressure. After passing through a steam condenser, the ow vents to the room through a thin-plate orice ow meter.

Glass Bowl Filter

P1

Nozzle

P3

V5

V6

2 k+1

(2.2)

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The thin-plate orice ow meter offers a direct measurement of the volumetric ow rate as measured by the pressure drop across the sudden restriction introduced by a thin-plate orice. The volumetric ow rate can be determined using Bernoullis equation and conservation of mass as Q = (V A) = CA 2p (1 4 ) (2.4)

where C = 0.65 is the orice discharge coefcient to correct for losses within the ow meter, A is the area of the orice, p is the pressure drop across the orice, is the density of the uid, and = d/D where d and D are equal to the orice and pipe diameters respectively. For this ow meter the orice has a diameter of 1.065 [in] and is installed in a 3 [in] internal diameter pipe.

2.4

Procedure

For this experiment, only compressed air will be used as the working uid. 1. Ensure that steam valves labelled V3, V4, V5 and V6 in Fig. 2.2 are closed, and that air valve V1 is open. 2. Open back pressure valve V7 completely. 3. Set the pressure probe traversing hand-wheel to position 1. 4. Open nozzle air inlet valve V2 fully and adjust regulator R1 to obtain a nozzle inlet pressure of 75 [psig] (or as high as possible if the supply line cannot provide 75 [psig]) according to the large pressure gauge P2. Use the smaller gauge P3 attached to the inlet chest to monitor inlet pressure during the experiment. 5. When conditions are stable, advance the pressure probe through nozzle positions 5 to 27, recording the probe pressure with the large gauge and the pressure drop across the thin-plate orice ow meter with the inclined manometer, at each location. At the end, return the probe to position 1 to verify the inlet pressure using the large pressure gauge. 6. Set the pressure probe to position 28 to measure the back pressure. 7. Close the back pressure valve V7 to increase the back pressure and repeat this experiment for back pressure readings of 10 [psig], 20 [psig], 30 [psig], 40 [psig], and 60 [psig]. 8. Shut down experiment by closing air valve V2.

2.5

Calculations and Discussion

p Plot the pressure prole for all back pressures on one graph, using the absolute pressure ratio ( p0 ) versus probe position. Include a legend to identify each curve.

Calculate the average manometer reading for each back pressure. If the manometer scale was not adjusted to zero for no ow, correct the readings with respect to any initial offset. Calculate and tabulate the measured mass ow rate for each back pressure case as measured using the thin-plate orice ow meter. Fluid density can be determined from ambient conditions using the ideal gas law. For the zero back pressure case only, calculate the theoretical mass ow rate (using the reservoir pressure and temperature) assuming choked ow. Compare the theoretical mass ow rate to the measured mass ow rate. Note that the cross-sectional area of the throat is an annulus due to the presence of the cylindrical probe aligned with the nozzle axis. The area at the throat can be written as At = (d2 d2 ) (2.5) p 4 t where dt and dp are the diameters of the nozzle throat and probe, respectively.

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pb Plot the mass ow rate versus the ratio of absolute back pressure to absolute reservoir pressure ( p0 ), and determine the pressure ratio at which the nozzle switches from choked to non-choked ow.

Discuss the reasons for the various shapes of the pressure proles. Which parts of the proles correspond to subsonic versus supersonic ow? Locate any shocks present in the divergent section and give their approximate locations by probe position. Are the shocks sharply dened or spread out? Complete one error propagation estimation for the measured ow mass ow rate of the zero back pressure case. Does the error in your measurements account for any differences between the theoretical and measured mass ow rate?

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2.6

Experimental Data
Atmospheric pressure (pa ): Ambient temperature (Ta ): Inlet temperature (T0 ): Manometer at zero ow: Approximate error in pressure measurements (p ): 30 [psig] Pres. [psig] Man. [mm H2 O] 40 [psig] Pres. [psig] Man. [mm H2 O] 60 [psig] Pres. [psig] Man. [mm H2 O]

Approximate error in manometer measurements (h ): Back Pres. Probe Pos. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 0 [psig] Pres. [psig] Man. [mm H2 O] 10 [psig] Pres. [psig] Man. [mm H2 O] 20 [psig] Pres. [psig]

Man. [mm H2 O]

Chapter 3

Gas Turbine
3.1 Objective

The purpose of this lab is to carry out a full-load test on the Rover 1S/60 gas turbine engine at steady state. The developed power, fuel consumption rate, and overall efciency will be determined from observed test data.

3.2

Theory

A gas turbine engine, whether used to produce thrust or shaft work, may be modeled as a thermodynamic cycle (Brayton Cycle) if an air standard analysis is applied. In the Brayton Cycle, air as an ideal gas is used as the working uid instead of air, fuel and combustion Fuel in products. In an actual gas turbine engine, energy is extracted from the hot combustion products by the 3 2 Combustor Gas Turbine Engine turbine to produce work. A fraction of this work is optional used to drive the compressor, while optionally generwork out ating shaft work for power generation. As illustrated Compressor Turbine 1 in Fig. 3.1, using an air standard analysis, the combustor is replaced by an equivalent heat addition at Air in Products 4 Heat in constant pressure. To satisfy the second law of therout modynamics and form a closed loop, an additional heat rejection to the atmosphere is used to connect Heat 3 2 Brayton Cycle Exchanger the turbine exit and compressor inlet states. This can optional work out be thought of as the air exiting the turbine and coolCompressor Turbine ing off in the atmosphere before eventually returning to the compressor inlet. For a gas turbine engine used to generate power, Heat 4 1 Exchanger we can measure the power developed at the output shaft, more commonly referred to as brake horseHeat out power, by applying a load using a dynamometer. In this experiment a hydraulic dynamometer is used, with the turbine shaft turning a rotor inside a stator Figure 3.1: A gas turbine schematic with Brayton cycle approximation. through which water ows. This mechanism is similar to the torque converter in an automatic transmission. The power developed by the engine is dissipated as heat generation in the water via viscous dissipation. Although not directly connected to the stator, the rotor applies a torque on the stator by rotating the water past the vanes of the stator. The stator casing is mounted on trunnions and is prevented from rotating by a spring scale. When a balancing

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torque is applied to the stator casing at a xed RPM, the power developed by the engine equals the dynamometer loading torque times the dynamometer RPM.

3.3

Apparatus

This experiment will use the Rover 1S/60 gas turbine engine, which contains a single stage centrifugal compressor, a reverse ow combustion chamber, and a single stage axial turbine to produce a maximum of 60 [hp] with a maximum governed speed of 46000 [rpm]. The engine is loaded using a Heenan and Froude DPX2 hydraulic dynamometer. Note that the maximum reading of the dynamometer spring scale is 50 [lbf ], and for this experiment an additional 50 [lbf ] has been added to the dynamometer torque arm. A calibrated airmeter is attached at the compressor inlet for determining the air mass ow rate. The Rover gas turbine engine uses a multi-piston fuel pump with an automatic control. The fuel ow rate is measured using a rotameter mounted on the central panel. For this experiment a premium diesel fuel will be used.

3.4

Procedure

This experiment will be run with the assistance of a member of the technical staff who will prepare and operate the engine. 1. Familiarize yourself with the various components of the engine and dynamometer. 2. Record the atmospheric temperature and pressure. Record the type, heating value and specic gravity of the fuel used. 3. Complete the engine start sequence. 4. Load the engine by admitting water to the dynamometer. Balance the torque using the load balancing handwheel. Increase loading until a maximum turbine exit temperature of 1100 [F ] is reached. 5. Verify the engine is operating at steady state by observing the engine instrumentation, including all temperature, pressures and ow rates. 6. Record the indicated dynamometer load including the additional 50 [lbf ] of extra loading. Record the dynamometer speed. 7. From the central instrument panel, record the air ow meter pressure drop, compressor to turbine pressure drop, turbine exit static pressure, and compressor inlet and exit pressures. 8. Record the compressor inlet and exit temperatures and turbine exit temperature. 9. Record the fuel pressure and ow rate. In addition, record the temperature and pressure of the engine oil and dynamometer water. 10. Complete the engine shutdown sequence. Record the time for the engine to run down.

3.5

Calculations and Discussions

Determine the brake horsepower developed (Wb ) from the dynamometer load (W ) and dynamometer RPM (N ). Note that for this dynamometer, to calculate the power in [hp], the following formula applies WN Wb = 4500 where the load W is in [lbf ] and speed N is in [rpm]. (3.1)

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Calculate the mass ow rate of fuel mf in [lbm/min]. Note the specic gravity of the fuel and that one imperial gallon of water has a mass of 10.02 [lbm]. The rotameter measures the volumetric ow rate! Using the heating value and mass ow rate of the fuel, determine the total energy added by the fuel Qin in [Btu/min]. For an equivalent Brayton cycle producing a net rate of work Wb for a given rate of heat transfer input Qin , calculate the thermal efciency of this cycle. Note that 1 [hp] = 42.41 [Btu/min]. Calculate the brake specic fuel consumption BSF C in [lbm/hp hr] BSF C = mf Wb (3.2)

Calculate the mass ow rate of air ma in [lbm/s] using the calibration chart in Fig. 3.2. Note that the air meter pressure drop is measured in inches of oil with a specic gravity of 0.827. The quantity p/pa is a dimensionless quantity. You may use the following conversions and values 1 [inH2 O ] = 0.0362 [psi] 1 [inHg ] = 0.491 [psi] x0 = 15.3 in2 Calculate the air/fuel ratio A/F . Calculate the power developed by the turbine in [hp] using an air standard analysis. Assume that the compressor is an isentropic device. Note that a fraction of the power produced by the turbine is used to drive the compressor and an additional 5 [hp] is lost to friction and accessories. Therefore the turbine power can be written as Wt = Wc + Wb + Wf (3.3)

where Wc is the compressor power and Wf is the power lost to friction and accessories. Hint: To calculate the compressor power requirement apply a mass and energy balance. Calculate the turbine inlet temperature using an air standard analysis. Do not assume the turbine is an isentropic device. Hint: Apply a mass and energy balance to the turbine. Calculate the back work ratio bwr. Calculate the thermal efciency of the gas turbine engine assuming an cold air standard analysis (k = 1.4) with the compressor pressure ratio r = p2 /p1 . Hint: Pressures must be absolute!. t = 1 r
1k k

(3.4)

How does this compare to the previous thermal efciency calculation?

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3.6

Experimental Data
Fuel: HHV of fuel: Specic gravity of fuel: Atmospheric pressure: Atmospheric temperature: Dynamometer load [lbf ]: Dynamometer speed [rpm]: Fuel ow rate [I.Gal./h]: Airmeter pressure drop p [in of oil]: Compressor to turbine pressure drop [inHg ]: Compressor inlet (impeller tip) pressure p1 [psi]: Compressor exit (comp. delivery) pressure p2 [psi]: Compressor inlet temperature T1 [F ]:

Compressor exit (comp. delivery) temperature T2 [F ]: Turbine exit pressure [in of oil]: Turbine exit temperature T4 [F ]: Dynamometer pressure [psi]: Dynamometer temperature [F ]: Oil pressure [psi]: Oil temperature [F ]: Fuel pressure [psi]: Run down time [s]:

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0.026

0.024

0.022

0.02

p pa

0.018

0.016

0.014

0.012

0.01 0.08

0.085

0.09

0.095

0.1

ma T1 x0 pa

0.105

0.11

0.115

0.12

0.125

0.13

Figure 3.2: Rover 1S/60 gas turbine airmeter calibration where x0 = 15.3 in2 is the airmeter effective area, ma is the air mass ow rate in [lbm/s], T1 is the air inlet temperature in [K], and pa is barometric pressure in [psi].

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Chapter 4

Thermal Conductivity and Contact Resistance1

4.1 Objective

The objective of this lab is to measure the thermal conductivity of two materials using a heat conduction apparatus. In addition, the thermal contact resistance at the interface between the two materials will be determined.

4.2

Theory

Fouriers law of heat conduction states that the local heat ux q/A is proportional to the local temperature gradient. Fouriers law can be written in one dimension as q dT = k (4.1) A dx where the constant of proportionality is the thermal conductivity k, and area A is the cross-sectional area at location x. For steadyTA state, one-dimensional conduction it can be shown that the heat TB ux at any location x is constant, and thus the temperature distribution, T (x), through the conducting media must be a linear function of x. If we know temperatures T1 and T2 at two loca- T tions spaced some distance L apart, then the rate of heat transfer T 4 by conduction in one-dimension can be written as T
T T1 T2 q q = kA . (4.2) T2 1 L Fig. 4.1 illustrates one-dimensional conduction through a sekA kB quence of two different materials of constant cross-sectional area. As the rate of heat transfer through both materials must be the LA LB x same, if the thermal conductivity of each material is different, then the gradient of the temperature distribution in each material Figure 4.1: One-dimensional heat conduction along a commust be different. It is important to note that there may be a subposite bar. stantial temperature drop at the interface of the two materials due to imperfections in the mating of the two surfaces. Heat transfer across the interface occurs by conduction at the contact points, by radiation between the surfaces, and by convection and conduction across any interstitial uid if present. For perfectly smooth surfaces there would be no thermal contact resistance and no discontinuity in temperature at the interface.
1 This

chapter is based upon the work of D. Naylor (Naylor 2001).

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The thermal resistance to heat ow at the interface, or thermal contact resistance, may be dened as TA TB Rt,c = (4.3) q based upon the temperature jump across the interface and the heat transfer rate through the interface. Contact resistance may also be dened in terms of an equivalent heat transfer coefcient hi using Newtons law of cooling as q = hi A(TA TB ) which can be rearranged to solve for hi . (4.4)

Electrical Heater

+ T4

50

Al 25 T3 T2 S.S.

7 6.5

Measurements will be made using the Cussons Thermal Conductivity Apparatus. A schematic diagram of the Cussons Apparatus is shown in Fig. 4.2. For illustration purT1 6.5 poses two test specimens (25 [mm] diameter bars) are shown clamped into the apparatus. Cooling The specimens are heated electrically at the upper end and cooled at the lower end by a T Tout in Water ow of water. To reduce heat losses to the surroundings, an insulation jacket (not shown) surrounds the specimens. All dimensions The conduction heat transfer rate is calculated by measuring mass ow rate and temin [mm] perature rise of the cooling water supplied to the lower end of the bar. Using an energy rate balance with constant specic heats the heat transfer rate to the water can be written Figure 4.2: Schematic diagram of as q = mcp (Tout Tin ) (4.5) the Cussons Thermal Conductivity Apparatus. The inlet and outlet temperatures of the cooling water are measured using glass thermometers. The mass ow rate is measured using a stop watch, bucket and weigh scale. Steady-state temperature measurements are made at the four locations shown in Fig. 4.2 using type-K thermocouples. Using these temperature and heat transfer rate measurements, the thermal conductivity of each sample (kA , kB ) and the interfacial contact coefcient (hi ) can be calculated using equations presented above.

4.4

Procedure

1. If not already assembled, place the aluminum and stainless steel specimens together in the apparatus as illustrated in Fig. 4.2. Check that all four thermocouples are in place and cover the apparatus with the insulating jacket. 2. Turn on the cooling water supply and switch the heater to full power. Wait for the hot end (T4 ) to reaches approximately 200 [C], then reduce the heater current to about 0.35 [amps]. 3. Allow the apparatus come to steady-state. Monitor the specimen and cooling water temperatures to conrm that steady conditions have been achieved. 4. Once at steady-state, time the collection of the cooling water in the container provided. Record the specimen temperatures, and the cooling water temperatures every two minutes. At the fourth reading, once 6 minutes has elapsed, stop collecting the cooling water. Weigh the amount of water collected.

4.5

Calculations and Discussion

Using appropriately averaged cooling water temperature readings, calculate the heat transfer rate through the composite bar. Plot the temperature distribution (temperature versus location) within the aluminum and stainless

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4.3

Apparatus

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steel bars on one plot. Assuming a linear temperature distribution for both materials, extrapolate the interfacial temperature difference. Using this result, calculate the interfacial thermal resistance Rt,c and heat transfer coefcient hi . Calculate the thermal conductivity of both samples (kA , kB ) and compare to published values for various stainless steel and aluminum alloys. A table of values appears in the appendix of the course textbook and in Table 4.1. Determine the closest material based upon the measured thermal conductivity. If differences exist, be sure to discuss the most likely reasons in your report. The two specimens are clamped together in the apparatus. If the two specimens had simply been stacked in the apparatus, what effect might this have had on the experiment results? Suggest two methods for decreasing the thermal contact resistance between the two specimens.

4.6
Time

Experimental Data
0 [min] 2 [min] 4 [min] 6 [min]

Water Tin Water Tout T1 T2 T3 T4 Mass of water collected: Collection time:

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Material Aluminum pure Aluminum alloy 2024-T6 Boron Cadmium Chromium Cobalt Copper pure Bronze (commercial) Brass (cartridge) Constantan Gold Iron pure Armco (99.75% pure) Cast iron (plain) Cast iron (alloy) Carbon Steels Plain carbon Carbon-Silicon Carbon-Mn-Si Chromium (low) Steels 0.18% C, 0.65% Cr, 0.23% Mo, 0.6% Si 0.16% C, 1% Cr, 0.54% Mo, 0.39% Si 0.2% C, 1.02% Cr, 0.15% V Stainless Steels AISI 302 AISI 304 AISI 316 AISI 347 Lead Magnesium Molybdenum Nickel pure Nichrome Inconel Platinum pure Platinum alloy 60Pt-40Rh Rhodium Silicon Silver Tin Titanium Tungsten Uranium Zinc Zirconium

100 [K] 302 65 190 203 159 167 482 75 17 327 134 95.6

Thermal Conductivity k ([W/mK]) 200 [K] 400 [K] 237 240 163 186 55.5 16.8 99.3 94.7 111 90.9 122 85.4 413 393 42 52 95 137 19 323 311 94 69.5 80.6 65.7 54 48.7 56.7 49.8 42.2 38.2 42 46.8 17.3 16.6 15.2 15.8 34 153 134 80.2 14 13.5 71.8 136 146 98.9 425 62.2 20.4 159 29.6 111 21.6

600 [K] 231 186 10.6 80.7 67.4 379 59 149 298 54.7 53.1 47.2 45.5 48 44 39.7 36.7 39.1 42.1 20 19.8 18.3 18.9 31.4 149 126 65.6 16 17 73.2 141 136 61.9 412 19.4 137 34 103 20.7

9.2

12.6

39.7 169 179 164 8.7 77.5 100 186 884 444 85.2 30.5 208 21.5 117 33.2

36.7 159 143 107 10.3 72.6 125 154 264 430 73.3 24.5 186 25.1 118 25.2

Table 4.1: Thermal Conductivity of Common Metals

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Chapter 5

Forced Convection From a Cylinder in Cross Flow1

5.1 Objective

The objective of this lab is to determine the convective heat transfer rate from a circular cylinder in a cross ow of air. Experimental measurements will be made using a lumped capacitance transient cooling technique. Using the experimental data, an empirical correlation will be derived and compared to published results.

5.2

Theory

Forced convection from a circular cylinder in a cross ow of uid is encountered in a wide range of thermodynamics and uids engineering applications. As shown in Fig. 5.1, uid with free stream velocity U and free stream uniform temperature T ows normal to the axis of the cylinder. The cylinder has U ow , T Ts diameter D and uniform surface temperature Ts . Some theoretical solutions to this problem have been obtained for low Reynolds number. However, at turbulent moderate and high Reynolds number, an unsteady turbulent wake forms beD wake hind the cylinder making mathematical solution of the governing equations extremely difcult. Hence, in the range of most practical applications, heat transfer correlations are based on experimental measurements. For external forced convection problems, experimental heat transfer data has been found to t a relationship of the following form Figure 5.1: Forced convection from a circular 1/3 m NuD = CRe Pr (5.1) cylinder in cross ow.
D

where NuD = hD k U D ReD = cp Pr = k average Nusselt number cross ow Reynolds number uid Prandtl number (5.2) (5.3) (5.4)

In Eq. 5.1, the constant C and exponent m are obtained from a best t to experimental data. The values of C and m for several Reynolds number ranges are given in Table 5.1 (from measurements by Hilpert (Hilpert 1933).) To partially correct for property variations, all uid properties should be evaluated at the lm temperature Tf = (Ts + T )/2.
1 This

chapter is based upon the work of D. Naylor (Naylor 2001).

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Winter 2006

ReD Range 4 101 4 100 4 100 4 101 4 101 4 103 4 103 4 104 4 104 4 105

Table 5.1: Constants of Eq. 5.1 from Hilpert (1933).

5.3

Apparatus

The convective heat transfer rate will be measured using the Plint Cross Flow Apparatus. The primary component of this apparatus is a low speed wind tunnel. A sketch of the wind tunnel is shown in Fig. 5.2. The wind tunnel has a 12.7 [cm] 12.7 [cm] cross section and is equipped with a gate on the outlet of the fan to control the air ow. A traversing pitot tube is used to measure the air velocity in the tunnel. The test cylinder has a diameter of 1.242 [cm] and is instrumented with a single thermocouple. The middle section of the cylinder is made of copper and has a length of 9.5 [cm]. Cylindrical end pieces made of phenolic are attached to the copper cylinder to reduce axial conduction. An annular heater is used to heat the cylinder prior to each test.

ow control gate test cylinder

traversing pitot tube

fan

inlet ow

Figure 5.2: Low speed wind tunnel

5.4

Procedure

1. Turn on the wind tunnel fan. With the ow control gate approximately 50% open, traverse the pitot tube over the cross section of the wind tunnel to check the velocity prole. (In a properly designed wind tunnel, the velocity should be uniform over most of the tunnel cross section.) 2. Check that the copper test cylinder is polished. Insert the copper cylinder into the annular electric heater. 3. With the wind tunnel fan on, open the ow control gate fully. Once the cylinder temperature reaches 80 [C] to 85 [C] , quickly insert the cylinder into the wind tunnel. 4. Using the data acquisition computer, immediately record the cylinder temperature at regular time intervals. Take frequent readings during the initial period of rapid cooling.

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5. Record the pitot tube manometer deection, the inlet air temperature, and the barometric pressure. 6. Repeat steps 2 to 5 for several gate settings. Get at least ve cooling curves at different air velocities. Use the pitot tube to get even velocity increments between data sets. 7. Repeat one test, matching the test conditions as closely as possible. In your report, comment on the your experimental reproducibility.

5.5

Calculations and Discussion

T T = =e i Ti T where Ti is the initial cylinder temperature at time t = 0, T is the ambient temperature, h is the average heat transfer coefcient, As is the surface area of the cylinder, is the density of the cylinder, cp is the specic heat of the cylinder, and V is the volume of the cylinder Taking the natural logarithm of Eq. 5.5 gives ln = i hAs V cp t (5.6)

hAs V cp

Using a lumped capacitance analysis, the temperature variation of the cylinder with time t can be shown to be:
t

(5.5)

For each set of cooling data plot ln(/i ) versus time t and t a straight line through each data. Referring to Eq. 5.6, use the slope of this best-t line to calculate the average heat transfer coefcient h for each air velocity. For each set of data, calculate the air velocity from the pitot tube manometer reading. Calculate the Reynolds number, Prandtl number and average Nusselt number for each data set. Evaluate the uid properties at the average lm temperature, Tf = (Ts + T )/2. Plot ln NuD versus ln ReD (or log NuD versus log ReD ) . Fit a straight line to the data and use the slope and y-axis intercept to calculate the constant C and exponent m for your experimental data. On the same graph, plot the correlation of Hilpert (Hilpert 1933). Plot the average heat transfer coefcient h versus the free stream air velocity U . How much does the convective heat transfer rate increase if the free stream air velocity is doubled? Measurement errors caused by blockage effects are always present in an enclosed wind tunnel. The test model reduces the cross section for ow, causing the air velocity near the model to be articially high. Using your h versus U graph, estimate the approximate percentage error in h caused by wind tunnel blockage.

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5.6

Experimental Data
Barometric pressure: Test 1 Test 2 Air Temp: Manom.: Time [s] Temp. [C] Test 3 Air Temp: Manom.: Time [s] Temp. [C] Test 4 Air Temp: Manom.: Time [s] Temp. [C] Test 5 Air Temp: Manom.: Time [s] Temp. [C] Test 6 (repeat test) Air Temp: Manom.: Time Temp. [s] [C]

Air Temp: Manom.: Time [s] Temp. [C]

22

Chapter 6

Numerical Simulation of a Cylinder in Cross Flow

6.1 Objective

The objective of this lab is to numerically simulate the temperature distribution of a cylinder cooling in a cross ow of air. Experimentally determined heat transfer coefcients will be used to model convection at the outer cylinder surface. The temperature of cylinder at the centerline as a function of time will be determined numerically and compared to experimental results.

6.2

Theory
T Ti t=0 t>0

As seen in Ch. 5, the convection heat transfer coefcient, h, can be determined for a cylinder in cross ow for a variety of ow speeds. This convection coefcient can be treated as the average convection coefcient acting over the entire outer surface of the cylinder. In the case of the cylinder used in the previous experiment, the ends of the cylinder are insulated such that conduction within the cylinder may be considered to be one-dimensional. The thermocouple used to measure the temperature of the cylinder in the previous experiment is located at the cylinder centerline. The heat conduction equation, written in its simplest form for one-dimensional conduction in cylindrical coordinates, is 1 r r rk T r = cp T t (6.1)

q"

Cylinder (,cp,k)

Air (h,T)

T 0

t ro

subject to the boundary conditions Figure 6.1: Temperature distribution of a cooling cylinder T (0, t) = 0 (6.2) as a function of radius and time. r T (ro , t) k = h(T (ro , t) T ) (6.3) r where the former boundary condition is required for symmetry about the centerline (r = 0) and the latter satises the surface energy balance at r = ro . A solution to the heat conduction PDE, subject to the above boundary conditions and starting at the initial conditions T (r, 0) = Ti , will yield the temperature distribution T (r, t) within the cylinder. We expect a solution that varies from the uniform initial temperature at t = 0 to a uniform nal temperature equal to the air temperature.

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6.3

Apparatus

For this numerical experiment we will use a conventional computer and the software package Matlab, a high-level technical computing language and environment. To approximate a solution to the governing PDE we will use the Matlab function pdepe. The function pdepe can approximate a solution to a PDE of the form rm r rm f r, t, T, T r + s r, t, T, T r = c r, t, T, T r T t (6.4)

To solve Eq. 6.1 with pdepe requires m=1 f T T =k r r T =0 s r, t, T, r T c r, t, T, = cp r r, t, T, (6.5) (6.6) (6.7) (6.8)

The function pdepe expects boundary conditions to be presented in the form p(r, t, T ) + q(r, t)f r, t, T, T r =0 (6.9)

which for r = 0 is satised with p = 0 and q = 1, and for r = ro p(ro , t, T ) = h(T T ) q(ro , t) = 1 The function pdepe approximates a solution to T (r, t) at a nite number of locations on the region r [0, ro ] and for a nite number of instances over the time span t [0, tf ]. The initial conditions are specied as values for each point on the region r [0, ro ]. The function pdepe works by approximating the PDE as an ordinary difference equation (OE). Spatial derivatives are approximated as nite differences between neighbouring points in the region r [0, ro ]. For example, a rst derivative may be approximated at location rj as T r
j

(6.10) (6.11)

solution at time tn

Tj

Tj+1 Tj1 rj+1 rj1

(6.12)

where the j + 1 and j 1 refer to the neighbouring values of the j-th location. Temporal derivatives may be approximated in a similar way and after suitable rearrangement allow the function to march the solution from one time step tn to the next tn+1 , beginning with the initial r ro rj-1 rj rj+1 conditions at t = 0. Note that the solution to the OE is only an ap0 proximation to the solution of the PDE, however with a suitable choice of parameters a highly accurate approximation can be constructed. As Figure 6.2: Discrete temperature distribution on rewe will use pdepe simply as a numerical tool, the exact details of gion r [0, r ] at time t o n how pdepe functions are left to future courses. It will be necessary to provide the function pdepe with the details regarding the region, time span, PDE parameters, boundary conditions, and initial conditions.

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6.4

Procedure

A certain degree of computer prociency and familiarity with Matlab or similar software is assumed. The following instructions should be sufcient to complete this experiment without prior Matlab experience, however if you are having difculty you should speak to your lab instructor during your scheduled lab session. Matlab documentation may be accessed through the Help menu or by entering the command doc. Extra notes are provided below as boxed paragraphs. 1. Start the Matlab application which will open, at least, the main Matlab window containing the Command Window and menus. Within the Command Window, change directories to an empty local working directory. Matlab commands and expressions can be entered in the Command Window interactively, or read from a script le. You may also dene your own functions as M-les in the current working directory. In the Command Window, type doc matlab for an overview of Matlab. You can determine your working directory from the Command Window with the pwd command. You can change directories with the cd directory command. Type help cd for more information.

The main Matlab window should appear similar to the following.

2. Add the cylsolve function to your working directory as a new M-le called cylsolve.m.

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You can create a new M-le from the menu (FileNewM-File) and edit this le using the Matlab Editor. Save this le as cylsolve.m in your working directory. Or, optionally you can edit an existing le with the editor.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

The cylsolve.m le will take the following form, where you will need to replace the values indicated as ??? with appropriate values. A copy of this le is also available on the course Blackboard Web site. cylsolve.m function [Tc]=cylsolve(t,Ti,Tinf,h,rho,cp,k,D) % Determine temperature at r=0 for time span vector t % for a cylinder in cross flow. % Inputs: % t = A vector of time [s] for solving T(t) % Ti = Initial cylinder uniform temperature [K] or [C] % Tinf = Fluid temperature [K] or [C] % h = Convection cooling coefficient [W/m/K] % rho = Density of cylinder [kg/m3] % cp = Specific heat of cylinder [J/kg/K] % k = Thermal conductivity of cylinder [W/m/K] % D = Diameter of cylinder [m] % Returns: % T = Temperature at core T(t) [K] % Generate a linear distribution of 100 points from r=0 to r=r_o

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17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68

r=linspace(0,D/2,100); % Call pdepe to solve the PDE problem described by the cylPDE, cylIC, % cylBC functions. THe solution will be described by a matrix sol % where the solution at location r_j and time t_n can be found at the % entry sol(n,j). % For more information, type help pdepe or doc pdepe. sol=pdepe(1,@cylPDE,@cylIC,@cylBC,r,t); % Return the centerline temperature as a function of time span t % (i.e. the first column of sol) Tc=sol(:,1); % Define the PDE sub-function cylPDE. % Note that all the above variables (eg. Ti,Tinf,h,rho,cp,k, and D) % are defined for this function. % -------------------------------------------------------------function [c,f,s] = cylPDE(r,t,T,dTdr) % return c,f,s according to Eq. 6.4-6.8 as a function of the given % r,t,T,dTdr c = ???; f = ???; s = ???; % End of cylPDE end % Define the initial conditions sub function cylIC. % Note that all the above variables (eg. Ti,Tinf,h,rho,cp,k, and D) % are defined for this function. % -------------------------------------------------------------function [T0] = cylIC(r) [n,m]=size(r); T0=ones(n,m)*Ti; % End of cylIC end

% Define the boundary conditions sub function cylBC. % Note that all the above variables (eg. Ti,Tinf,h,rho,cp,k, and D) % are defined for this function. % -------------------------------------------------------------function [pl,ql,pr,qr] = cylBC(rl,Tl,rr,Tr,t) % Define the left boundary conditions at r=0, according to Eq. 6.9, as % a function of the given left boundary values rl and Tl. pl = ???; ql = ???; % Define the right boundary conditions at r=r_o, according to % Eq. 6.9-6.11, as a function of the given right boundary values rr and Tr. pr = ???; qr = ???; % End of cylBC end

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69 70 71

% End of cylsolve end

cylsolve.m

In Matlab, all text following the % character is ignored as a comment. The entry at the ith row and j-th column of a matrix, for example sol, can be retrieved with the expression sol(i,j). You can extract just the j-th column with the expression sol(:,j), or just the i-th row with the command sol(i,:).

The cylsolve function will return the temperature distribution at the centerline T (0, t) as a vector for the time span you provide as the vector t. If you type help cylsolve, Matlab should return the rst block of comments. Test your function before continuing by calling cylsolve with Ti = T for a small time span [0;0.5;1]. As the initial and freestream temperatures are equal, cylsolve should return the same temperature at each time regardless of the other parameters. For example, >> Tnum=cylsolve([0;0.5;1],10,10,1,1,1,1,1) Tnum = 10 10 10 3. Load your observations for the rst set of data (time versus temperature) from the previous lab experiment. You will need two separate vectors: t containing the times, and T containing the temperatures. You can enter this data manually, or load the data from a text le. (a) To enter the data manually, you will need to type in each entry. For example, if your time [s] versus temperature [C] data consisted of the pairs (0, 80.8), (10, 75.4), and (20, 67.7), then you could enter this data as >> t=[ 0; 10; 20] t = 0 10 20 >> T=[ 80.8; 75.4; 67.7] T = 80.8000

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(b) Or, to read this data from a text le, for example from a comma-delimited le exported from a spreadsheet, use the command dlmread. If the comma-delimited le data.csv in the working directory contains 0,80.8 10,75.4 20,67.7 then the command X=dlmread(data.csv,,) would load in the data as a 3 2 matrix. This can be split into two column vectors as follows. >> X=dlmread(data.csv,,) X = 0 80.8000 10.0000 75.4000 20.0000 67.7000 >> t=X(:,1) t = 0 10 20 >> T=X(:,2) T = 80.8000 75.4000 67.7000 4. Using your cylsolve function, generate the numerical solution Tnum using your time span vector t. Ensure that you pass appropriate values for the cylinder including initial temperature Ti, air free stream temperature Tinf, convection cooling coefcient (as determined in the previous experiment) h, cylinder density rho, cylinder specic heat cp, cylinder thermal conductivity k, and cylinder diameter D. >> Tnum=cylsolve(t,T(1),<INSERT YOUR VALUES HERE>) The result will be a vector Tnum that is the same size as t and T, but represents the numerical solution to the unsteady heat conduction problem. 5. Plot the experimental and numerical temperature (T and Tnum) versus time (t) on the same plot, ensuring that the two curves are labelled clearly. Print or save this plot for your lab report. From the Figure window you may save the image in any format using FileSave As. In Matlab, you can use the plot command to produce a two-dimensional plot. For example, the following commands produce a labelled plot with a legend.

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clf; % Clear current figure plot(t,T,*,t,Tnum,-); % Plot both data sets xlabel(t [s]); % Label for x-axis ylabel(T [C]); % Label for y-axis legend(Experimental,Numerical); % Add a legend title(h=??? [W/m/K]); % Add a title 6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 for each remaining data set from the previous experiment. You should have plots for each ow control gate setting. Ensure that each plot is clearly labelled. 7. For the last data set, calculate the numerical solution using the same data, but for a cylinder that is double in diameter. Plot the experimental versus numerical temperature versus time, and include this plot in your report. Ensure that this plot is clearly labelled. 8. Print or save a copy of your le cylsolve.m for inclusion in your report. 9. When nished, if working in a public lab, erase the contents of your working directory.

6.5

Calculations And Discussion

Include all plots produced using Matlab, clearly labelling each plot. Include a print out of your function cylsolve.m. In the previous experiment, we used a lumped capacitance method to model the cooling of the cylinder. Conrm that the lumped capacitance method is valid for this experiment. The function pdepe returns a solution to the temperature at many radial locations within the cylinder, not just the centerline. If the lumped capacitance method is valid, how should the numerical solution at r = ro and r = 0 compare over time? For the numerical simulation of a cylinder that is double in diameter, estimate the nal temperature using the lumped capacitance method of the previous experiment. How do your numerical results compare to the lumped capacitance method value? What is the expected effect of doubling the cylinder diameter? In the previous experiment we heated the cylinder in an annular heater until the centerline temperature reached approximately 80 [C]. For the numerical experiment we assumed that the cylinder was at a uniform initial temperature. What differences might exist between the numerical and actual initial conditions? Is this a signicant source of error in our numerical solution?

6.6

Experimental Data

Verify that you have the following les or print-outs: Plots for each ow control setting (including the repeated test) comparing the experimental to numerical values. A plot of the last test data, but this time using a cylinder with a different diameter. A copy of the source code for your cylsolve function.

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Bibliography
CRC (1988). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. CRC. Hilpert, R. (1933). Warmeabgabe von geheizten drahten und rohren. Forsch. Geb. Ingenieurwes. 4, 215224. Lassaline, J. V. (2005). AER 309: Thermodynamics Laboratory Manual. Ryerson University. Naylor, D. (2001). MEC 701: Heat Transfer Laboratory Manual. Ryerson University. University of Chicago (2003). The Chicago Manual of Style. University of Chicago.

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Appendix A

Errors and Corrections

A.1 Error Estimation and Propagation

When presenting measured values you must provide an estimate of the error. For example, if you are measuring temperature with a thermometer that is marked at every 1 degree Celsius, your best measure of the current room temperature may be 21.5 0.2[ C]. In other words, to the best of your measuring ability the temperature is 21.5[ C] with an expected error of approximately 1 of a degree. As errors are at best estimates, it is normal to truncate the error 5 at the rst non-zero digit (e.g. 0.005 rather than 0.004925.) When using digital equipment, the accuracy of the measure should be taken to be 1/2 count of the last digit shown, unless otherwise noted. For example, if a digital scale read 2.512[g], the error would be 0.0005[g]. Other sources of error, such as a small breeze across the scale, may raise the error to 0.001. Use your best judgement and record the estimate of error with your measurements. All reported observations should include an estimate of the error. All plots containing values with an estimate of error should include error bars. (If your software cannot include error bars in the gure, draw them in by hand.) When using your measured observations in a calculation you need to propagate this estimate of error throughout your calculations. Your sample calculations should demonstrate the resulting error. Pay careful attention to the instructions for each experiment to determine when your report should include error propagation analysis. For this course we will use a simplied form of the proper statistical technique (which uses standard deviations.) If we have a function formed from a pair of independent (uncorrelated) measured values x x and y y , we can estimate the error in the function using a few simple rules based upon the worst-case scenario. For addition or subtraction of two values with errors, the error is cumulative. (x x ) + (y y ) = (x + y) (x + y ) (x x ) (y y ) = (x y) (x + y ) For multiplication or division by an exact number, both the value and the error are scaled by the exact number. 2(x x ) = 2x (2x ) For multiplication of a pair of values with errors, the error is formed as follows (x x )(y y ) = xy (xy + yx + x y ) xy (xy + yx ) (A.4) (A.3) (A.1) (A.2)

assuming that x y is much smaller than the other error products. For both multiplication and division this can be reduced to an expression for the relative error xy x y = + |xy| |x| |y| x/y x y = + |x/y| |x| |y| 32 (A.5) (A.6)

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For products of powers functions such as xm y n , the relative error can be determined using x xm yn y = |m| + |n| m yn | |x |x| |y| The previous operations can be summarized as follows function xy x xm y n log x error x + y x
y |xm y n | |m| x + |n| |y| |x| log x

(A.7)

For general functions that are combinations of the above, carefully determine the error for each operation, following the normal order of operations. For example, to determine the error in z(x y) where z, x, and y all have associated errors one can: 1. Calculate the error in the temporary value t1 = x y using the rule for subtraction. 2. Calculate the error in the product zt1 using the rule for products. As an alternative, to determine a statistical estimation of the error propagation for a general function F of measured values (x, y, . . .) with associated errors of (x , y , . . .) respectively, we can estimate the function error F using F = or in keeping with the simplied error analysis F = F F x + y + . . . x y (A.9) F x x
2

F y y

+ ...

(A.8)

Note that this may produce slightly different values than the previous methods but is acceptable given that we are at best providing an estimate of the errors.

A.2

Barometer Corrections
Observed height in [in] 26 27 28 -0.027 -0.028 -0.029 -0.050 -0.052 -0.054 -0.074 -0.077 -0.080 -0.097 -0.101 -0.105 -0.121 -0.125 -0.130 -0.144 -0.150 -0.155 -0.167 -0.174 -0.180

Corrections for Hg barometers by temperature are listed below (CRC 1988) for both SI and BG units. Temp. [F ] 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

23 -0.024 -0.045 -0.065 -0.086 -0.107 -0.127 -0.148

24 -0.025 -0.046 -0.068 -0.090 -0.111 -0.133 -0.154

25 -0.026 -0.048 -0.071 -0.094 -0.116 -0.138 -0.161

29 -0.030 -0.056 -0.082 -0.109 -0.135 -0.161 -0.187

30 -0.031 -0.058 -0.085 -0.112 -0.139 -0.166 -0.193

31 -0.032 -0.060 -0.088 -0.116 -0.144 -0.172 -0.200

Table A.1: Temperature correction for Hg and brass barometers in BG units. Corrections in [in].

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Temp. [C] 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

620 -0.51 -1.01 -1.52 -2.02 -2.52 -3.02 -3.52

640 0.52 -1.04 -1.56 -2.08 -2.60 -3.12 -3.64

660 -0.54 -1.08 -1.61 -2.15 -2.68 -3.22 -3.75

Observed height in [mm] 680 700 720 -0.56 -0.57 -0.59 -1.11 -1.14 -1.17 -1.66 -1.71 -1.76 -2.21 -2.28 -2.34 -2.277 -2.85 -2.93 -3.32 -3.41 -3.51 -3.86 -3.98 -4.09

740 -0.60 -1.21 -1.81 -2.41 -3.01 -3.61 -4.21

760 -0.62 -1.24 -1.86 -2.47 -3.09 -3.71 -4.32

780 -0.64 -1.27 -1.91 -2.54 -3.17 -3.80 -4.43

Table A.2: Temperature correction for Hg and brass barometers in SI units. Corrections in [mm].

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Appendix B

GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.2, November 2002 Copyright c 2000,2001,2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc. 51 Franklin St, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA 02110-1301 USA Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. Document is released under this License. If a section does not t the above denition of Secondary then it is not allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant Sections then there are none. The Cover Texts are certain short passages of text that are listed, as FrontCover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words. A Transparent copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented in a format whose specication is available to the general public, that is suitable for revising the document straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent le format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage subsequent modication by readers is not Transparent. An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount of text. A copy that is not Transparent is called Opaque. Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML or XML using a publicly available DTD, and standard-conforming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human modication. Examples of transparent image formats include PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque formats include proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or processing tools are not generally available, and the machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word processors for output purposes only. The Title Page means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this License requires to appear in the title page. For works in formats which do not have any title page as such, Title Page means the text near the most prominent appearance of the works title, preceding the beginning of the body of the text. A section Entitled XYZ means a named subunit of the Document whose title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for a specic section name mentioned below, such as Acknowledgements, Dedications, Endorsements, or History.) To Preserve the Title of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a section Entitled XYZ according to this denition. The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which states that this License applies to the Document. These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no effect on the meaning of this License.

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