1

Mullett

Discuss the cellular concept and explain the advantages of frequency reuse. Draw a diagram of a typical cellular cluster and explain the meaning of frequency reuse number. Discuss how the capacity of a cellular system may be expanded. Explain the difference between cell splitting and sectoring. Discuss the use of backhaul networks for cellular systems. Explain the concept of mobility management and discuss the operations it supports. Discuss the concepts of power management and network security.

developed by Bell Labs 1960s-70s

areas divided into cells a system approach, no major technological changes a few hundred meters in some cities, 10s km at country side each served by base station with lower power transmitter each gets portion of total number of channels neighboring cells assigned different groups of channels, interference minimized

hexagon geometry cell shape

Introduction:

The main objective of cellular concept is to allocate more users in a limited allocated spectrum.

Multiple lower-power base stations that service mobile users within their coverage area and handoff users to neighboring base stations as users move. Together base stations tessellate the system coverage area.

A large subscriber capacity

Efficient use of spectrum resources Nationwide coverage Adaptability to traffic density Telephone service to both vehicle and portable user terminals Telephony but also other services including closed user groups with voice dispatch operations

Toll quality Affordability, which could eventually make it a mass-market service

Cont.
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Power requirement for mobile is less due smaller cell and low power
transmitter

Longer battery life and smaller mobile station form factors. Initial implement cost is large due to
Deployment of large no. of low power stations Acquisition of lands for cell sites The associated hardware

RBS TxrRXr and controller

Antennas and towers MSC RBC and Radio spectrum.

But the cellular concept allows a large enough increase in capacity to make these operations economically feasible.

Instead of one base station covering an entire city, the city was broken up into cells, or smaller coverage areas. Each of these smaller coverage areas had its own lower-power base station. The radio channels must be allocated to these smaller cells in such way as to minimize interference but at the same time provide the necessary system performance to handle the traffic load within the cells.

The key characteristic of a cellular network is the ability to reuse frequencies to increase both coverage and capacity Extensive frequency reuse allows for many users to be supported at the same time.

Total spectrum allocated to the service provider is broken up into smaller bands.
A cell is assigned one of these bands. This means all communications (transmissions to and from users) in this cell occur over these frequencies only.
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Neighboring cells are assigned a different frequency band. This ensures that nearby transmissions do not interfere with each other. The same frequency band is reused in another cell that is far away. This large distance limits the interference caused by this co-frequency cell.

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Cluster:
o It is a group of cell that make use of all the available radio spectrum. o Cluster has N cells with unique and disjoint channel

o Since adjacent cannot use the same frequency channels, the total frequency allocation is divided up over the cluster and then repeated for other clusters in the system .
o The number of cells in a cluster is known as the cluster size or the frequency reuse factor (1/N)

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Example: Consider service provider wants to provide cellular communications to a particular geographic area. the provider is licensed = 5MHz.

Each system subscriber bandwidth(channel B.W)= 10KHz. If the service provider was to provide coverage from only one transmitter site, the total theoretical number of possible simultaneous users = Total B.W/ Channel B.W= 5MHz/10kHz /user = 500 users. If , however, the service provider implements a cellular system with 35 transmitter sites, located to minimize interference and provide total coverage of area, determine the new system capacity?.

Cont.. .
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Solution:

Assume the cluster size N = 7 The allocated B.W/cell= system B.W/ Number of cells in a cluster =5*106/7=714kHz Bandwidth per cell=714kHz. No. of cluster 35/7= 5. Each cell has a capacity =714kHz/10kHz/user=71 users Total system capacity =35 cells*71 users/cell=2485 users. This is a system capacity increase of =5 times.

Conclusion:

Smaller cells higher M higher C+ Channel reuse higher capacity + Lower power requirements for mobiles Additional base stations required More frequent handoffs Greater chance of hot spots
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Fig: Relative coverage areas of different size cell

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Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5

Cell Type

Cell diameter

Operating Environment Personal Area network(PAN) Indoor environment

Femtocells < 10 mts Picocells Microcells < 100 mt

100-1000mts Outdoor to indoor and pedestrian Vehicular and high antenna environment Vehicular and high antenna environment

Macrocells >1000mts to Few Kms Megacells Global coverage

Note: All type uses different radio link propagation and different technical cell
design concept

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A Cell : is a small geographic area within which each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels to be used.

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The Footprint: The actual radio coverage of a cell and is determined from field measurements or propagation prediction models. Although Real footprint is formless in nature, a regular cell shape is needed for systematic system design. Why circle can not be used to represent the coverage area of a base station? because adjacent circles can not be overlaid upon a map without leaving gaps or creating overlapping regions. Thus, when considering geometric shapes which cover an entire region without overlap and with equal area, there are three sensible choices: a square; an equilateral triangle; and a hexagon.

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Why Hexagonal model ?.

(1) A cell must be designed to serve the weakest mobiles within the footprint, and these are typically located at the edge of the cell. For a given distance between the center of a polygon and its farthest perimeter points, the hexagon has the largest area of the three. (2) By using the hexagon geometry, the fewest number of cells can cover a geographic region (3) The hexagon closely approximates a circular radiation pattern which would occur for an Omni-directional base station antenna and free space propagation.
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Reuse Number

To gain the maximum reuse of the frequencies for a cellular system, cells are arranged in clusters. To determine the minimum size cluster that can be used it is necessary to calculate the interference levels generated by the co-channel cells. The reuse distance has been determined that relates cluster size N, cell radius R and the reuse distance D. The frequency reuse distance can be calculated by: D = R(3N)1/2 where R=cell radius and N=reuse pattern.

Values of N can only take on numbers calculated from the following expression:
N = i2 + ij + j2 where i and j are integers.
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Reuse Number
Fig: Various cellular reuse pattern

Conclusion: N

Network cost

Complexity

Handoff

Interference

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Relationship between cluster size (N) and reuse distance(D).

Example 1 For mobile system cluster size of 7, determine the frequency reuse distance if the cell radius is five kilometers. Repeat the calculation for the cluster size of 4. Solution: Typical AMPS system cluster size of N=7 the reuse distance for cell is 3. (figure 4-4) use the expression N= i2 + ij + j2, one can show that possible value for N is 7. As shown in fig 4-4, the hexagons (cells) are arranged with one hexagon in the centre of a cluster and six other hexagons surrounding the middle hexagon. Adjacent clusters repeat the previous pattern. The re-use distance is found from the following equation : D=R(3N)1/2 Therefore, for a cluster size of 7, D=5(3*7)1/2 = 5(21)1/2 = 5(4.5823) = 22.913km. For a cluster size of 4, the re-use distance is given by : D= 5(3*4)1/2 = 5(12)1/2 = 5(3.464) = 17.32km.

a smaller cluster size results in a smaller re-use distance.

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Cellular interference issues (S/I)

Additionally, more complex calculation can yield the signal to interference ratio for a particular cluster size, N. The signal to interference ratio(S/I or SIR) gives an indication of the quality of the received signal much like the time honored signal to noise ratio (SNR) measurement. Using a fairly simple mathematical model for S/I ratio calculations involving unidirectional cells yield the results tabulated in the table 4-1 for several common values of N :

Table 4-1

Signal to interference ratio for various cluster sizes.

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Cellular interference issues(cont.)

Smaller cluster sizes will yield a larger possible subscriber but, as shown in table 4-1, the trade-off is a lowered S/I ratio and the corresponding decrease in the radio link quality.

The AMPS system did not yield usable voice quality radio links unless an S/I ratio exceeding 18dB was available.
This value of S/I was only possible for a cluster of size 7 and up. Therefore, the typical AMPS system was deployed with a cluster size of N=7.

Example 2: The example show a possible distribution of channels for an AMPS system with a cluster size of N=7. Solution: For this situation, the 416 radio channel are divided by the 7 cells per cluster to yield 59+ channels per cell site.
Each cell can have three control channels and some 56+ traffic channels.

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Cellular interference issues(cont.)

Table 4-2 A possible assignment of AMPS channels for a cluster size of 7.

Cell 1 Cell 2 Cell 3 Cell 4 Cell 5 Cell 6 Cell 7

Control channels 1 8 15 2 9 16 3 10 17 4 11 18 5 12 19 6 13 20 7 14 21

Traffic Channels 22 29 36 -402 409 416 23 30 37 -403 410 24 31 --404 411 25 32 --405 412 26 33 --406 413 27 34 --407 414 28 35 -401 408 415

Note : Each cell has a channel spacing of 7*30kHz=210kHz

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3. CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

Cellular capacity is a number of users in a cell. It is a concern in any wireless communications system. High demand for cellular service, especially in large urban markets, has created a need to serve a greater number of users in a limited amount of frequency space. Interference is the major limiting factor in the performance and capacity of cellular radio systems. It is a major bottleneck in increasing capacity and is often responsible for dropped calls.

Sources of interference
1. Another mobile in the same cell
2. A call in progress in a neighboring cell 3. Any non-cellular system which inadvertently leaks energy into the cellular frequency band. 4. Other base stations operating in the same frequency band.

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3. CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES ***

The approaches to capacity expansion are either architecturally or technologically enabled. They are
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Cell splitting Cell sectoring Overlaid Cells Channel allocation Lees Microcell Technology Smart Antenna Technology Migration to Digital Technology

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Cell splitting

The process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells. (each with its own base station and a corresponding reduction in antenna height and transmitter power) By defining and installing new cells which have a smaller radius than the original cells (microcells). Cell splitting preserves the geometry of the architecture and therefore simply scales the geometry of the architecture The increased number of cells would increase the number of clusters which in turn would increase the number of channels reused, and capacity

Fig: Increase capacity by cell splitting

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3.1 Cell splitting

Figure shown above assume that Cell A has become saturated and is unable to support its traffic load. Using cell splitting, six new smaller cells with approximately one-quarter the area of the larger cells are inserted into the system around A in such a way as to be halfway between two co channel cells. These smaller cells will use the same channels as the corresponding pair of larger co channel cells. In order that the overall system frequency reuse plan be preserved, the transmit power of these cells must be reduced by a factor of approximately 16 or 12dB.

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Cell splitting

Cell splitting will work quite well on paper however, in practice many times the process is not as smooth as one would desire. Very often due to the difficulty of acquiring appropriately located cell sites, the conversion process will be prolonged and different size cell size will exist in the same area. In these cases, it is necessary to form two groups of channels in the old cell:
one group that corresponds to the small-cell frequency reuse requirements and Another group that corresponds to the old-cell reuse requirements.

Usually the larger cell channels are reserved for highly mobile traffic and therefore will have fewer handoffs than the smaller cells.

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Cell splitting

As the splitting process moves toward completion the number of channels in the small cells will increase until eventually all the channels in the area are used by the lower-power group of cells and the original Cells A has had its power reduced and also joins the new smaller cluster. As traffic increases in other areas of the system this process may be repeated over again, Eventually the entire system will be resealed with smaller cells in the high-traffic areas and larger cells on the outskirts of the system or in areas of low traffic or low population density. Cell splitting effectively increases system capacity by reducing the cell size and therefore reducing the frequency reuse distance thus permitting the use of more channels.

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Cell splitting
Advantages: Increases the system capacity Reduces the cell size, frequency reuse distance. Increases the number of channels Disadvantages: Difficult to acquire appropriately located cell sites prolonged conversion process, different cell size exist in the same area. Larger cell channels are reserved for highly mobile traffic and therefore will have fewer hand offs ,than smaller cells. As traffic increases in the nearby areas of small cells, larger cells join the smaller cluster. therefore entire system gets concentrated with small cells No. of base station increases Trunking efficiency decreases Handoff process increases

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3.2 Sectoring

Popular method It increase capacity is to keep the cell radius unchanged and seek methods to decrease the D /R ratio. Uses directional antennas by replacing a single omni-directional antenna at the base station Antennas split the cell in to 3 new cells Antennas 120o apart Provides interference reduction

S/I ratio increases

Does not require new cell sites Additional antennas and triangular mounting only

Demerits:

Increased network system architecture complexity

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3.2 Sectoring
Fig: Interference reduction due to cell sectoring

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3.2 Sectoring

As shown in Figure the sectoring of a cell results in a reduction in the amount of interference that the sector experiences from its cochannel neighbors in adjacent clusters and conversely the amount of interference that the sector supplies to its cochannel neighbors. Before sectoring, for a cluster size of 7, a cell receives and gives interference to six other nearest cochannel cells in other clusters. Now, as shown by Figure for Cell AO, the number of interfering cells has been reduced to two (AI and A2). This results in a higher S/I ratio for that sector and its companion sectors in other clusters.

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3.2 Sectoring

Table below tabulates these new values for a three-sector scheme for some common values of cluster size. Cluster Size N 3 4 7 12 S/I Ratio in dB 16.08 18.58 23.44 28.12

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Comparison Between Cell splitting and Cell Sectoring

Cell Splitting

Cell Sectoring 1.It is an antenna technique to increase the system capacity

1. Cell splitting achieves capacity improvement by essentially rescaling the system. 2.By decreasing the cell radius R and keeping the co-channel reuse ratio D/R unchanged, cell splitting increases the number of channels per

2. It increase capacity is to keep the cell radius R unchanged and seek methods to decrease the D /R ratio

unit area.
3.Here the number of handoffs decreases 3. Here the number of handoffs increases

4.It increase in trunking efficiency

4. It decrease in trunking efficiency

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3.3 Overlaid Cells

This method can be used to expand the capacity of cellular systems in two ways. For split band analog systems Using macrocell, microcells Requires dual mode mobile systems For GSM or TDM Helps migrating to other systems Use same base stations Tiering Subcell in large cell

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3.3 Overlaid Cells (cont)

Overlaid cells in a split-band system

Using overlaid cell operational wideband analog system could be upgraded to increase its capacity by overlaying and analog system with narrower bandwidth requirements over it.

In such a split-band overlay system, channels are divided between a larger macrocell (using AMPS or TACS) and the overlaid microcell (using NAMPS or
NTACS) that is contained in its entirety within the macrocell.

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3.3 Overlaid Cells(cont)

Fig2:Overlaid cells in a reduced cluster size system

1 group of overlaid 3/9 plan

A1
B1
under overlaid 4/12 plan

A2 B1 C2

C1

A2 B2 C2 B3

A3 C2
Part of another Group of An overlaid 3/9 plan

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3.3 Overlaid Cells(cont)

Overlaid cells in a reduced cluster size system The second method of using overlaid cells may be applied to GSM or NA-TDMA systems. As an example of this method, consider a system with a cluster size of N=4. On the top of this system, a cluster of overlaid cells is applied with a cluster size of 3. If the channels for the overlaid cell cluster are taken from the underlaid cluster, the system capacity increases since the area needed for the overlaid system for the overlay system, the greater the increase in system capacity. This type of expansion allows operators to migrate their systems using the same base station and mobile station equipment. See Figure 2 for an illustration of this technique

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3.4 Channel allocation

Traffic in each cell is dynamic

Eg- sporting events, rock concerts, natural disasters Change with time COW (cell on wheels) It is deployed during natural disasters to restore disrupted communication

Portable cellular sites

Channel allocation techniques To avoid non-availability of service

Blocking Configure entire network capacity Should be less than 2% Minimize call blocking probability Serve subscribers effectively

Stabilizes temporal fluctuations of blockage

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3.4 Channel allocation(cont)

3 methods to achieve efficient channel allocation

Fixed channel scheme
Fine tune the system where needed Instead of equally dividing up channels over cells, some cells will receive larger channel allocations. Periodically update

Channel borrowing
High traffic cells borrow channels from low traffic cells Other cells in the cell lose that frequency Channel returned after traffic is cleared

Dynamic channel allocation (DCA)

Available channel are placed in channel pool Each channel assigned new call based on Signal to interference statistics Channel used until SIR is met Complex Every cell site must be capable of transmitting every one of systems assigned channels

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Other capacity expansion schemes

Lees Microcell technology

Sectoring increases handoffs increasing loads on switching elements Use zones instead of sectors Reduce number of hand offs Uses 3 antennas in a cell connected to same RBS Antenna with best reception used for uplink and downlink

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Other capacity expansion schemes

Fig: Lees microcell concept for capacity expansion

Zone antenna site RBS

Antenna patterns High speed communication links

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1.Lees Microcell technology

As shown in FIG, this technique employs three antennas that provide coverage by looking into the microcell. All three antennas are connected to the same base station by highspeed microwave or fiber links. The antenna with the best reception of the mobile is used for both the uplink and downlink. As the mobile travels with in the microcell the same channel can be used and there is no need for handoff operations. As the mobile moves into another zone the base station simply switches the channel to a different zone.

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2. Smart Antenna Technology

Not yet implemented Proposed for 3G techniques A BS could direct a narrow beam of radio wave at a particular mobile station Reuse the same channel over another narrow beam (smart antenna use phased array technology,i.e, Adaptive steered antenna are used). This technology is referred to as SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access) Many systems have space diversity to select the best signal out of 2 or more signals.
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3.Migration to newer technology

1G S/I=18dB AMPS 2G S/I=12dB GSM,NA-TDMA Newer technology is based on digital modulation technique e.g. 3G services 2G systems use TDMA and CDMA to achieve greater capacity
TDMA vs. CDMA TDMA 1.Multiple time slots per multiple users. 2.Immune to noise and interference 3.Provide service with low S/I CDMA 1.Multiple users use the same channel simultaneously. 2.Interference handling capacity is inherent 3. Good S/I ratio

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4. Cellular backhaul networks

Backhaul Getting data to the network backbone or transmitting from a remote site or network to a central or main site 1G Voice voice + data Change in requirements for PSTN and PDN Separate facilities for voice and data networks 2G Voice band signals are transcoded (compressed and reformatted) at BSC Fiber optic cables between MSC and PSTN Minimized costs CDMA had IWF for data but same connection maintained for voice 2.5G, 2.5+G Own private wideband networks to backhaul both voice and data between MSC and BS GSM Packet switched networks GPRS, PLMN added Access web sites through private servers 3G High speed data services All IP network, ATM SONET/SDH

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4. Cellular backhaul networks(cont)

CDMA Cellular system data network connections PSTN BSC

MSC

IWF RBS RBS

PDN

RBS

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4. Cellular backhaul networks(cont)

GSM cellular system data network connection To PDN

GSM and GPRS coverage area

GPRS PLMN

GSM PLMN BSC

To PSTN

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5. Mobility management ***

It is important characteristics of wireless communication system is the ability to provide mobility to the user. It explains how the network knows where the subscriber is ( LOCATION MANAGEMENT) and how it keeps track of and in contact with the mobile station as the user moves from one cell to another (HAND OFF MANAGEMANT) (Mobility = location + hand off )management

Characteristics/features
Provide mobility to user Contrasting wireless and PSTN network Location management Location update Paging messages Handoff management
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5. Mobility management ***

It is important characteristics of wireless communication system is the ability to provide mobility to the user. It explains how the network knows where the subscriber is ( LOCATION MANAGEMENT) and how it keeps track of and in contact with the mobile station as the user moves from one cell to another (HAND OFF MANAGEMANT) (Mobility = location + hand off )management

Characteristics/features
Provide mobility to user Contrasting wireless and PSTN network Location management Location update Paging messages Handoff management
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5.1 Location management

It is the process of Keeping track of the present or last known location of the mobile station and delivery of both voice and data to it is move around. Eg. Voice call through PSTN

Working When a call is made that passes through PSTN,

Dedicated traffic channel set up from BS to MS PSTN sets up circuit over fixed part of network Wireless network allocates radio channels for air interface For this MS location must be known Provide continuous radio link Direct the packet in a network Determine MS status in network Check availability of the MS 1. 2. 3. Location updating Paging messages Transmission of location information between network elements
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Objectives

3 basic functions performed by Location management

1.Location Updating

Performed by MS After initial power up registration, the MS and BS will exchange their identification information. MS attached to a base station and is located initially Periodically checked for changes MS sends update message every time it changes point of access(AP) in a network Exchange information for handoff If a connection fails, systems page group of surrounding stations to track a MS It tuned on with new registration
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1.Location Updating

Balance required between number of update messages and number of cells to be paged Greater degree of certainty in locating the MS Call blocking due to frequent paging

Two types of updating schemes

Static
Geographic layout determines updating requirements

Dynamic
Users mobility determines updating requirements

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1.Location Updating
Static Method: Geographic layout is used for dating requirements. It is most of cellular provider use this technique

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1.Location Updating
Static Method: Geographic layout is used for dating requirements. It is most of cellular provider use this technique Draw back: PING-PONG Effect: Its a draw back faced by a static location area ID
scheme. This effect can occur if the mobile is moving in a path that takes it back and forth between the borders of 2 LA s.

o location updating procedure (at BSS)

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1.Location Updating

Dynamic location updating:

It is not a popular with in the wireless industry. These scheme are typically based on the status or state of the mobile. Some of the typical measures used to determine the mobiles status and hence determine the need to perform the updating algorithm are elapsed time, total distance travelled, call patterns, number different LAs entered, and so on..

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2.Paging messages

Incoming call/message to MS initiates paging of mobile Consists of Broadcasting message

To bring response from a single particular mobile Starts communication processing Required if exact cell of mobile not known This information not available always

Blanket paging
Broadcast to all cells in a location area Initiates MS to respond

Sequential paging
Paged to the cell where it was last registered

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2.Paging messages(cont)

Handoff initiated when power from current RBS drops Reduce ping-pong effect
Handover to and fro between a cell pair frequently
Solution is to define threshold

Fine tuning algorithm to improve system performance

Provide required QOS continuity during handoff

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3. Transmission of the location information between network elements

For location updating to work correctly in a wireless network, there must exist several data bases where mobile station information can be stored and accessed by the network as needed. Wkt when MS is register (i.e. Mobile ID numbers are stored) in a home location register (HLR) maintained by this subscribers home network. This HLR data base is usually located with the MSC and also store the users profile, which includes permanent data about the subscribers, including call plan supplementary services, location information and authentication parameters. VLR is also maintained by the home network and also usually colocated with the MSC (MSC/VLR). The home VLR will temporarily store information about MS that has registered itself with the home network. Therefore, if an MS is turned on by a subscribers home network area, the home VLR will temporarily store the uses information.

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3. Transmission of the location information between network elements

With in a particular network there are usually several to many MSCs used to support networks operation. Depending up on the particular network topology, each MSC may contain HLR and VLR data base function are alternately single HLRs (configured as a MSC/HLR/VLR) might service a group of MSC/VLRs .

For a small system another possibility is that a gateway MSC (GMSC) might house the HLR function for a group of integrated MSC/VLRs. A gate way MSC is an MSC that interface the mobile network with other network such as PSTN.

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3. Transmission of the location information between network elements(cont.)

let us examine several possible scenarios that could occur during the operation of a wireless network.
The firs possibility the user turned on a mobile within his or her home area. The mobile registers with the VLR for the home area. The colocated or system HLR confirms that the subscribers has network privileges Subscriber has network privileges. Communication between remote HLR and MSC/VLR occurs using particular signalling protocol over an SS7 network. The second case would occur when the user is away from his or her home location. Now mobile registers with VLR of another MSC or a foreign network. The first possibility refers to the fact that subscribers still connecting to his or her own service providers network but different MSC/VLR is covering the area where the subscribers is now located.
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3. Transmission of the location information between network elements(cont..)

Whereas, a foreign network belongs to a different service provider (this type of connection is called roaming). In these situations, the MSC/VLR must send a message to the subscribers HLR to verify authentication information about the mobile. The HLR will respond to the request by transmitting the information back to the requesting MSC/VLR over SS7 signalling network.

A few comments about the communications between MSC/VLRs and VLRs are appropriate here.

For a GSM cellular system and most other modern, the SS7 system is used to communicate these massages.
The signalling done over this network is accomplished using massage transfer part (MTP) as the common platform and signalling connection part (SCCP) to provide the additional functionality to connect network data bases (HLRs and MSC/VLRs) without any speech connection occurring during this operation .

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Handoff management

Handoff, Handoff control, Handoff algorithm ,Handoff operation

Handoff: If a subscriber moves from one cell to another, the cellular system must have the ability to reconfigure the connection to the mobile from the current base station to the new BS in the new cell. This connection hand over process is called hand-off.
Handoff control

The algorithm used to determine when to made a handoff can be located in a network element or in a mobile terminal. Two major types : Network controlled handoff or NCHO Mobile-controlled handoff or MCHO

Parameters measured/used in the handoff algorithms

RSS (received signal strength) System path loss. S/I ratios BER (bit error ratio) Symbol/Block error rate Parameters can undergo fluctuations due to signal fading

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Handoff management

Fig: Typical cellular handoff operation

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Handoff management
Fig: Typically handoff logarithms using RSS measurents

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6. Radio resources and power management

Transmission powers represent a key degree of freedom in the design of wireless networks Interference management: Due to the broadcast nature of wireless communication, signals interfere with each other. Power control helps ensure efficient spectral reuse and desirable user experience. Energy management: Due to limited battery power in mobile stations, handheld devices, or any nodes. Power control helps minimize a key component of the overall energy expenditure. Connectivity management: Due to uncertainty and time variation of wireless channels, the receiver needs to be able to maintain a minimum level of received signal so that it can stay connected with the transmitter and estimate the channel state. Power control helps maintain logical connectivity for a given signal processing scheme.

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Power control
Design issues making it desirable to include dynamic power control in a cellular system Received power must be sufficiently above the background noise for effective communication Desirable to minimize power in the transmitted signal from the mobile Reduce co-channel interference, lessen health concerns, save battery power Energy efficient hardware and software Types of power control

Open-loop power control Depends solely on mobile unit No feedback from BS Not as accurate as closed-loop, but can react quicker to fluctuations in signal strength Closed-loop power control Adjusts signal strength in reverse channel based on metric of performance BS makes power adjustment decision and communicates to mobile on control channel

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Power control

Achieve SIR tolerance with good quality communications Must constantly adjust to change in signal strength caused by fading or mobility of MS Usual Power control algorithm has 2 phases
Phase I:
MS registers with BSS Determine minimum output power Avoid possibility of a call drop

Phase II:
Additional measurements to reduce power Output power of RBS is adjusted

Use complex algorithms achieve maximum SIR for all radio links

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Power saving schemes

Discontinuous transmission (DTX)

Transmit during speech only Extra over head Compensate low-power background during silence Adopted by MS, TRC, BSC also

Sleep mode
No activity RF circuitry is powered off Periodical awakening

Energy efficient designs

Semiconductor technologies Power efficient modulation schemes Software/hardware design DSP technology

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Radio resources management

Radio resource management (RRM) is the system level control of cochannel interference and other radio transmission characteristics in wireless communication systems

Types
Static RRM: Involves manual as well as computer aided fixed cell planning or radio network planning. Dynamic RRM: Adaptively adjust the radio network parameters to the traffic load, user positions, quality of service requirements, etc.

Provide functional improvements for RF operation Implement system power control to reduce interference Maximize capacity from above concept Best available radio channel selection Use wireless radio resource management scheme to enable handoff operations

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7. Wireless network security

Wireless medium has certain limitations over the wired medium

Open access Limited bandwidth Systems complexity

3G networks have a packet switched core

Connected to external networks like Internet vulnerable to new types of attack

Security Issues In Cellular Networks

Authentication Integrity Confidentiality Access Control Operating Systems Web Services Location Detection Viruses And Malware Downloaded Contents Device Security
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Wireless network security requirements

Limitations Security issues GSM security

Global control equipment identity register (CEIR)
Database in Dublin, Ireland List of handsets approved for GSM White/Black listed

GSM cellular operators employ an EIR

Keep track of handsets to be blocked Registered user of CEIR share database

CEIR creates master black list for operator

Identification Authentication Billing Maintenance All-IP network

Increased management issues Prevent hacking of systems Software virus prevention

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Wireless network security requirements

Network security

Techniques
Encryption
Scrambling using key Secret key algorithms

Prevent threat from global terrorism

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Keep going

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Mercedes Horse

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