INFANCY

Birth to 2 years

Infant Characteristics

Adaptations baby must make after birth

Average weight: 7 to 7.5 pounds Average length: 19 to 21 inches Head Circumference: 35 centimeters Normal newborn loses 510% of birth weight due to loss of fluid and lack of nourishment during birth process

Babys lungs must provide CO2/O2 exchange Nutrients must be ingested by the baby and processed by the digestive tract Babys intestinal tract needs to channel waste out of the body With the help of the environment, baby regulates her/his own body temperature

WHAT ARE INFANT REFLEXES?

Involuntary stereotyped responses to a particular stimuli.

Dominant movement form during the last 4 months of

prenatal life and first 4 months after birth.

Most infant reflexes do not last beyond the first year. Infant reflexes may not completely disappear.

May be inhibited by maturing CNS.

May be integrated into new movements.

WHY IS THE STUDY OF INFANT REFLEXES IMPORTANT?

Dominant

form of movement for last 4 months

prenatally and first 4 months postnatally.

Primitive Postural

reflexes critical for human survival.

reflexes believed to be foundation for

later voluntary movements.

Appearance

and disappearance helpful in

diagnosing neurological disorders.

ROLE OF THE REFLEXES IN SURVIVAL

Human

infants essentially helpless.

Highly dependent on their caretakers and

reflexes for protection and survival.

Primitive

reflexes occur during gestation or at

birth and most are repressed by 6 months of age.

Primitive

reflexes are important for protection,

nutrition, and survival.

ROLE OF REFLEXES IN DEVELOPING FUTURE MOVEMENT

Postural reflexes are related to the development of
later voluntary movement.

Reflexes integrated, modified, and incorporated into more complex patterns to form voluntary movements.

Automatic movement is practice for future

voluntary movements.

REFLEXES AS DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS

Reflexes can determine level of neurological maturation.

Reflexes are age-specific in normal, healthy infants Severe deviations from normal time frame may indicate neurological immaturity or dysfunction.

Reflexes should be tested carefully and only by trained professionals.

Need state of quiet. If baby restless, crying, sleepy, or distracted, may not respond to applied stimulus.

INFANT STATES OF AWARENESS

States of consciousness or levels of awareness that

characterize individuals. Some states are:

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep active sleep without REM indeterminate sleep drowsy inactive alert active awake crying

PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IS RAPID!!!

Perceptual

abilities develop to adult-like or nearadult levels by the age of 6 months. contrast, rarely do infants speak at 6 months, walk at 6 months, or can do fine-motor tasks at this time.

In

Perceptual

development may be launching pad for other aspects of development to occur (Sternberg).

WHAT IS PERCEPTION?
Refers to how we interpret the stimulus information our nervous system takes in & processes.

WHAT IS A SENSATION?
Usually refers to the physical stimulus in the environment (light, sound waves).

We convert physical energy from the world into neural energy our brains can process.

WHY ARE PERCEPTION AND SENSATION SO IMPORTANT??

It

is the beginning of all behavior & mental

processing.
You

can produce movements, behaviors, or language

only if you have the pre-requisites to respond to objects & events in your environment.
We

need to integrate perceptions to actions

(consequences of produced actions).

WHAT INITIALLY GETS OUR ATTENTION?

We

attend to novel stimuli in the

environment (bright lights, sounds, flashers).

This

orienting response called the orienting

reflex, is present from birth.

WHEN SCANNING THE ENVIRONMENT, WHAT DO INFANTS LOOK FOR?

Very

young infants (1 mos.) scan the edges of objects.

They love contrasts & ignore interiors. (e.g., outside views of face)

By

2 mos. Infants start focusing visual attention on the

interior views of objects. (e.g., stare more at eyes & mouth

of a face, than on hairline).

VISUAL ACUITY
Acuity

is poor ( 20/200 to 20/800) in first couple

of months of life. Images are blurry & must be very close to babys eyes to be detected.
By

6 mos. Acuity is near adult-levels. Pupil size increases and visual

Gradually,

acuity improves

WHAT CAN INFANTS SEE?

3-month-old

infants can perceive most colors

(reds, blues, & greens).

Infant

depth perception improves with

experience, which is necessary for proper brain development.

3-5

mos.infants can coordinate their two eyes &

begin seeing depth as adults do

VISUAL PERCEPTION

Newborns vision is estimated to be 20/400 to 20/800, but by six months it has improved to 20/100

Infants can distinguish colors by 2 months of age

Researchers have also discovered that infants prefer

patterns to colors or brightness and faces to shapes

There is also evidence that infants can perceive depth as their heart rates increase when placed before an illusory precipice

OTHER SENSES

Hearing - Infants certainly can hear but stimulus needs to be louder than that needed for adults, recent research also tells us that fetus can hear & respond to sounds outside womb

Touch - Studies completed in 1999 have found that newborn

infants do indeed feel pain, has raised issue with circumcision for
boys & caused many parents to rethink their choice on this matter

Smell - Newborns can differentiate odors but not at birth Taste - may be present before birth & after birth prefer salty &

sweet to sour

HEARING ABILITY

Infants well developed auditory systems, even before birth.

Infants dont hear better than adults. Sounds need to be louder (10-17 dB) for infants to hear them.

Infants hear high frequencies quite well (they are poor at

detecting low frequencies) & prefer to hear high-pitched voices.

WHAT DO INFANTS PREFER HEARING?

Musical sounds over non-musical sounds (infants

alter sucking patterns to hear musical sounds over noise)

High-pitched voices (Mother) vs. low-pitched voices.

ABILITY TO SMELL

Newborns produced smiles to strawberry & banana odors & grimaces/ cries to rotten-egg & fish odors (Steiner, 1979).

Infants learn to prefer their mothers scent to other women.

ABILITY TO TASTE

Newborns respond to all four taste sensations.

Newborns produced distinct facial expressions in

response to sweet, sour, bitter, & salty substances.

Infants prefer sweet tastes (milk).

TACTILE ABILITY

Infants are very responsive to touch, like to be stroked and cuddled.

Premature infants have better health outcomes (more

likely to survive), if held & stroked regularly.

INTERMODAL PERCEPTION
Ability

to relate & integrate information

about two or more sensory modalities, such as vision & hearing

In

studies with infants, some were found

to be able to coordinate visual-auditory information involving people

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Cephalocaudal & Proximodistal Patterns

Cephalocaudal

sequence in which greatest

growth occurs at top (head), working its way

to neck, shoulders, middle truck, so on

Proximodistal

sequence in which growth

starts at center of body & moves toward

extremities

HEIGHT AND WEIGHT

Infants

double their birth weight by four

months of age, triple it by their first birthday, & grow an inch a month during their first year
By

2 years of age, infants weigh approximately

26 to 32 pounds & have reached about one-half of their adult height

THE BRAIN
Child

is born with 100 billion nerve cells

Neuron

- nerve cell that processes information at

receive information from other neurons,

cellular level.
Dendrites

muscle or glands
Axon

transmits information

Myelin
Axon

sheath speeds information transmission

ends are the terminal buttons of the neuron

EARLY EXPERIENCE AND THE BRAIN

Scientific research on animals & humans who have suffered

brain damage, tells us that brain produces trillions of cells

in early development which cannot possibly be used

Animals reared in richly-stimulated environments have

more neuronal connections than those reared in restricted

environments

Implication is children who are given a rich environment very early on, will develop greater neuronal connections for later use

OTHER INTERNAL ORGANS AND

SYSTEMS

Bone: Soft bones, mostly cartilage; flexibility increases.

Ossification adds minerals and hardens it into bone. It

closes fontanels. Trunk elongates and arms and legs grow.

Muscle: Born with complete set of immature muscles. Change in size and composition leads to more strength and composition.

Digestion: Food only partly digested; spitting up likely

(CONTD.)

Immune System: Child slowly produces own antibodies; receives supplemental antibodies through inoculation and breast milk.

Respiratory System: Lung capacity increases; lungs

sensitive to irritation

Circulatory System: Heart becomes stronger, more efficient; blood pressure decreases

Temperature Regulation: Efficient by age 11/2 to 2 Teething: Teeth erupt between 6 months and 3 years

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Skills Gross

infant learns through muscle control skills utilize large muscles for larger

motor activities such as moving arms or legs

Fine

skills involve more finely turned

movements such as finger dexterity.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Age

related changes in the childs ability to

think, remember, solve problems and make

decisions
Piagets

Theory of Cognitive Development

Cognition

Adaptation Adjusting ones thinking to accept ideas or information

Organization Synthesizing and analyzing perceptions and thoughts

Assimilation Inclusion of new information into already existing mental schema

Accommodation Shifting or enlarging mental categories to encompass new information

EQUILIBRATION

SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
Birth to age 2

Major Accomplishments
Integrate information from the senses Recognize that objects and people continue to exist even when they are not perceived or Object Permanence

Imitate the behaviour of others and deferred imitation

Plan and carry out actions with an intended purpose

SUB STAGES OF THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE

Stage
Reflexes(0-1 m) Primary Circular Reactions(1-4) Secondary CR (4-8) Coordination of means and ends Tertiary CR (12-18)

Focus
Elaboration of reflexes Producing interesting effects (own body) (objects in the environment Has purpose, acts to accomplish it Trial and Error experimentation, considers several solutions Insight without trial and error

Imitation Skills
Lacking Pseudoimitation

Object Permanence
Lacking Looks where object was last Uncovers partially hidden obj. Follows it Uncovers hidden obj. in I hiding pl. Uncovers hidden obj. under last cover Uncovers obj. hidden thro invisible displacement

Of familiar Patterns

Of novel patterns Of novel patterns

Invention of new means through mental comb.

Deferred Imitation

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Ability to think using mental representations of language; to communicate using sounds and words

Language comprehension is greater than language production

Language acquisition occurs in two phases

Prelinguistic phase Linguistic phase

STAGES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Prelinguistic Phase

Undifferentiated Crying Differentiated Crying Cooing Babbling Lallation (imitation by accident) Echolalia (intentional imitation) Expressive Jargon (apparently meaningful sounding sounds)

Linguistic Phase

Holophrase Speech

Telegraphic

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Theories discuss role of Heredity versus Environment

Behaviourists: B. F. Skinner, Bandura & others:

Language is learned; language is imitated

Chomsky and Piaget: We are born with inclinations to learn our native language. LAD

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Displays of emotion communicate needs and feelings and regulate

social distance.

Based on facial, vocal and gestural cues, infants display interest, distress and disgust as newborns

By 3-4 months happiness followed by surprise, anger and sadness and by 5-7 months fear can be observed

Complex emotions like guilt, envy, pride, shame and contempt

appear around the second year of life.

SPECIFIC EMOTIONS

Happiness
Reflex Social

Smiles
Smiles (3-8 months) in response to stimuli (12-16 weeks of age)

Laughter

Anger
On

being restrained forcibly or hurt (2 months)

In

response to frustration or brief separation (12 months)

Tantrums

Temper

(CONTD.)

Sadness

In response to pain or separation

Fear and Anxiety

Stranger Anxiety (6-8 months) ( peaks by 18 months)

Separation Anxiety

THEORIES OF EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Learning Theory: John B. Watson: Maintains that most behaviour is learned or conditioned rather than inborn

Ethological Theory: Humans are genetically organized to display emotions

Cognitive Developmental Theory: Discrepancy Theory: Donald Hebb: Childs emotional response to a novel stimulus is determined by the degree of similarity between the new stimulus and an internal representation of a stimulus to which the new one is compared

Organizational Approach: Emotions play a central role in behaviour by influencing cognition and encouraging exploration, attachment, and withdrawal from harm.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT - ATTACHMENT

A relatively long enduring tie in which the partner is important as a unique individual and is interchangeable with non other (Ainsworth, 1989) A close emotional selective relationship between two persons characterized by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity. (Cohen, 1974)

The strong affectional ties that bind a person to an intimate companion. (Bowlby, 1969)

SIGNALING AND ORIENTING BEHAVIOURS

Crying

Cooing
Smiling

Clinging/
Gazing

Grasping

PHASES OF ATTACHMENT

Pre-attachment Phase (Birth 6 months)

The Attachment-in-the-making Phase (6 weeks to 6-8

months)

The Phase of Clear-Cut Attachment (6-8 months to 18-24 months)

Forming a reciprocal Partnership (18 months to 24 months)

THEORIES OF ATTACHMENT
Psychoanalytic Theories

Freud linked attachment to his oral stage of development,

seeing the child gaining pleasure through feeding

Erik Erikson saw feeding as representing a mothers overall responsiveness to the needs of the child, which fosters a sense of trust

Harlow and Zimmerman: Classic study on monkey

behaviour

THEORIES (CONTD.)

Learning Theory/ Behaviourism: Emphasize

responsiveness of mother. See attachment as developing

through mutually responsive behaviours.

Ethological Theory: Attachment behaviour facilitates infant survival. Adults are genetically organized to respond favourably to baby characteristics.

ASSESSING QUALITY OF ATTACHMENT

Mary Ainsworth and the Strange Situation

Secure Attachment:

The child feels comfort when the parent is

present, experiences stress when parent leaves, happily re-establishes contact when parent returns

Insecure/ Avoidance Attachment: Children who do not miss parents Children who display a blend of contact-

when they leave and actually avoid them when they return
Ambivalent Attachment:

seeking and contact-resisting behaviour

Disorganized/Disoriented

Attachment: Children display

contradictory approach-avoidance strategies or lack a consistent strategy with the parent

CHILDREN IN AND OUTSIDE FAMILIES

Role of the Mother Role of the Father Sibling Relationships Peer Relationships Focus on Socialization

Socialization is the process through which the beliefs,

attitudes and behavioural expectations of the culture

are transmitted