Chap.

7 Counters and Registers

7-1

Introduction
Chap. 7 How FFs and logic gates can be combined to produce different types of counters and registers

Divided into 2 parts Part I : principles of counter operation, various counter circuit arrangement, and representative IC counters Part II : counter application, types of IC register, and troubleshooting

7-1 Asynchronous(Ripple) Counters

Asynchronous Counter : Fig. 7-1 The FFs do not change states in exact synchronism with the applied clock pulses
Ripple Counter The FFs respond one after another in a kind of rippling effect The terms asynchronous counter and ripple counter interchangeably Signal Flow(in Fig. 7-1) Left-to-Right : Conventional signal flow Right-to Left :
FF A(rightmost) = LSB, FF D(leftmost) = MSB Well break left-to-right convention, especially in counter diagrams

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Exam. 7-1) Some time later the clock pulses are removed, and the counter FFs read 0011. How many clock pulses have occurred? 3 + 16 = 19 + 16 = 35 + 16 = 51 .. Mod Number = 2N ( N : number of FF ) Number of different states
Fig. 7-1 : MOD-16 ripple counter ( 0000 1111)

Exam. 7-2) The counter must be able to count as many as one thousand items. How many FFs are required ? 10 FFs : 0 1023 ( 1001 1023 ) Frequency Division For any counter, the output from the last FF(the MSB) divides the input clock frequency by the MOD number of the counter MOD-16 Counter = Divide-by-16 Counter : Fig. 7-2 Exam. 7-3) How many FFs are required for the MOD-60 counter? There is no integer power of 2 that will equal 60 : 26 = 64 In the next section we will see how to modify the basic counter so that any MOD number can be obtained.

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7-2 Counters with MOD Number < 2N

Mode Number less than 2N: The basic counter can be modified to produce MOD numbers less than 2N by allowing the counter to skip states MOD-6 Counter : Fig. 7-4 When B = C = 1, NAND output will go 0 (few nanosecond spike or glitch)
This glitch is very narrow and so would not produce any visible indication on LEDs However It could cause a problem if the B output were being used to drive other circuitry

State Transition Diagram : Fig. 7-5 Dotted line : Temporary state(=110) 111 state : never reached, not even temporarily

Displaying Counter States Output A = 1 : Inverter output = 0 Output A = 0 : Inverter output = 1

LED ON LED OFF

Exam. 7-4) a) LED status of 5, b) LED clocked by 1 kHz, c) LED will be visible for 110 in Fig.7-5

Exam. 7-5) Determine the MOD number and the frequency at the D output of the counter in Fig.7-6(a) D C B A = 1 1 1 0 = 14 NAND output = 0 (Clear Input) : MOD 14 30 kHz/14 = 2.14 kHz
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Chap. 7 Counters and Registers

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General Procedure (to construct MOD X Counter) 1) Find the smallest number of FFs such that 2N X, connect them as a counter. If 2N = X, do not do steps 2 and 3 2) Connect a NAND output to the CLEAR inputs of all the FFs 3) Determine which FFs will be in the HIGH state at a count = X; then connect the outputs of these FFs to the NAND inputs. Exam. 7-6) Construct a MOD-10 (count from 0000 ~ 1001) counter : Fig. 7-6(b) Find the smallest number of FFs : 4 ( 24 = 16 ) D C B A = 1 0 1 0 = 10 : D and B must be connected as the NAND gate input

Decade Counters/BCD counters : Fig. 7-6(b) or IC MOD-10 Counter = Decade Counter = BCD Counter
Count in sequence from 0000(0) to 1001(9)

Exam. 7-7) Construct a MOD-60 Counter : Fig. 7-7 Find the smallest number of FFs :64 ( 26 = 64 ) Q5 Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0 = 1 1 1 1 0 0 = 60 (32 + 16 + 8 + 4)

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7-3 IC Asynchronous Counters

74LS293 Asynchronous Counter IC : Fig. 7-8 Q0 CP1 : 3 or 4 Exam. 7-8) How the 74LS293 should be connected to operate as a MOD-16 counter : Fig. 7-9 MR1 = MR2 = 0, CP1 = Q0, Q3 = 10 kHz/16 = 625 Hz Exam. 7-9) How to wire the 74LS293 as a MOD-10 Counter : Fig. 7-10 Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0 = 1 0 1 0 = 10 (8 + 2)

MR1 MR2

Clear ( C0 )

Exam. 7-10) How to wire the 74LS293 as a MOD-14 Counter : Fig. 7-11 Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0 = 1 1 1 0 = 14 (8 + 4 + 2) Exam. 7-11) Construct a MOD-60 Counter with 74LS293 : Fig. 7-12 MOD-10 counter X MOD-6 counter = MOD-60 counter
MOD-10 counter : Exam. 7-9 MOD-6 counter : Q0 3 (Q3 Q2 Q1)

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CMOS Asynchronous Counters 74HC4024 : MOD-128 ripple counter = CTR DIV128 ( Fig. 7-14 ) 74HC4040 : MOD-4096 ripple counter

7-4 Asynchronous Down Counter

MOD-8 Down Counter : Fig. 7-15 The inverted output of each FF is connected to the CLK input of following FF.

7-5 Propagation Delay in Ripple Counters

Ripple Counter The simplest type of binary counter Decoding Glitch : Sec. 7-12 Propagation Delay : Fig. 7-16
The Nth FF cannot change states until a time N x tpd after the clock transition occurs.

For proper counter operation Tclock N x tpd fmax = 1 /( N x tpd )

Exam) 74LS112, tpd = tPHL = 24 ns 4 FFs : fmax = 1 / 4 x 24 ns = 10.4 MHz 6 FFs : fmax = 1 / 6 x 24 ns = 6.9 MHz * FF The total propagation delay fmax
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Chap. 7 Counters and Registers

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7-6 Synchronous(Parallel) Counter

Synchronous/Parallel Counters All of the FFs are triggered simultaneously (in parallel) by the clock input pulses Synchronous MOD-16 Counter : Fig. 7-17 A B Circuit Operation ABC = (J = K)

Design in 7-14 p. 362

Each FF should have its J and K inputs connected such that they are HIGH only when the outputs of all lower-order FFs are in the HIGH state

C A AB =( J = K) B

Advantage of Synchronous Counters over Asynchronous Total Delay in Synchronous Counter

Total Delay = Single FF tpd + Single AND gate tpd

Total delay is the same no matter how many FFs are in the counter

Actual ICs 74LS160/162, 74HC160/162 : Synchronous Decade(MOD-10) Counters 74LS161/163, 74HC161/163 : Synchronous MOD-16 Counters Exam. 7-12) (a) Determine fmax for the counter of Fig. 7-17(a) and Compare this value with MOD-16 ripple counter( FF tpd = 50 ns, AND gate tpd = 20 ns) Parallel Counter : fmax = 1 / ( 50 ns + 20 ns ) = 14.3 MHz Ripple Counter : fmax = 1 / (4 x 50 ns ) = 5 MHz
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(b) What must be done to convert this counter to MOD-32

5 FF(25 = 32) , J and K input are fed by the output of a four input AND gate whose inputs are A, B, C, and D

(c) Determine fmax for the MOD-32 parallel counter

FF 14.3 MHz

7-7 Synchronous Down and Up/Down Counters

MOD-8 Parallel Up/Down Counter : Fig. 7-18 Up Count : Up/Down = 1, AND gates 1/2 = Enabled, AND gates 3/4 = Disabled Down Count : Up/Down = 0, AND gates 1/2 = Disabled, AND gates 3/4 = Enabled

Exam. 7-13) What problems might be caused if the Up/Down signal changes levels on the NGT of the clock ? Possible Problems : Unpredictable results of FF
the J and K inputs change at about the same time that a NGT occurs at their CLK input.

Effects : Predictable results of FF(No problems)

the effects of the change in the control signal must propagate through two gates before reaching the J, K inputs( Clock Up/Down )

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7-8 Presettable Counters

Presettable Counter/Parallel Loading Counter Preset to any desired starting count either asynchronously or synchronously Presettable Parallel Counter with Asynchronous Preset : Fig. 7-19 The counter is loaded with any desired count at any time
1) Apply the desired count to the parallel data inputs, P2, P1, and P0 2) Apply a Low pulse to the PARALLEL LOAD input(PL)

PL Active Low, 2 NAND Gate 1, P P = 1 PRESET, P = 0 CLR Asynchronous Presetting IC Counters

TTL : 74LS190, 191, 192, 193 CMOS : 74HC190, 191, 192, 193

Synchronous Presetting The counter is preset on the active transition of the same clock signal Synchronous Presetting IC Counters
TTL : 74LS160, 161, 162, 163 CMOS : 74HC160, 161, 162, 163

Async presetting PRE/CLR

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7-9 The 74LS193/HC193

Presettable Up/Down Counter(74LS193) : Fig. 7-20 Synchronous Counter, Asynchronous Preset, and Asynchronous Master Reset Terminal Count : Fig. 7-21
TCU : 1111 TCD : 0000 0000 ( Fig. 7-22 t6, t7 ) 1111 ( Fig. 7-23 t9, t10 )

Exam. 7-14) Determine the counter output waveforms in Fig. 7-22(a) Up Counter : Fig. 7-22(b) Exam. 7-15) Determine the counter output waveforms in Fig. 7-23(a) Down Counter : Fig. 7-23(b) Variable MOD Number Using the 74LS193 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, ... TCD = PL : Preset to 0101(5) - Fig. 7-24 Q2 = 5 Clock cycle : Divide the frequency by 5
MOD-6 MOD-5

the counter gets preset back to 5 in the middle of a clock cycle

We can vary the frequency division by changing the logic levels applied to the parallel data inputs
A variable frequency-divider can be easily implemented by connecting switches to the parallel data inputs in Fig. 7-24

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Multistage Arrangement : Fig. 7-25 8 bits Up/Down Counter using two 74LS193s

7-11 Decoding a Counter

Decoding Electronically decode the contents of a counter and display the results
Immediately recognizable and require no mental operations

Active-HIGH Decoding : Fig. 7-27 At any one time only one AND gate output is HIGH Exam. 7-16) How many AND gates are required to decode all of the states of a MOD-32 counter? What are the inputs to the gate that decodes for 21 MOD-32 counter has 32 possible states : 32 AND gate 1 0 1 0 1(21) : E, D, C, B, A Active-LOW Decoding NAND gates are used in place of AND gates

Exam. 7-17) Generate a control waveform which could be used to control devices such as a motor, solenoid valve, or heater. Control Signal Generation(On/Off control) : Fig. 7-28 The X output is HIGH between the counts of 8 and 14 for each cycle of counter
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BCD Counter Decoding Decoder/Display Unit : Fig. 7-29 (refer to p. 512)

7-12 Decoding Glitches

Decoding Glitches : Fig. 7-30 The propagation delays between FF transitions cause problems when decoding a ripple counter Decoder X0 = Temporary 00 state Glitch : A = B = 0 (X0=1) Strobing : Fig. 7-31 A reliable method for eliminating the decoder glitches : Strobe Signal
Decode AND gates disabled until all of the FFs have reached a stable state

7-13 Cascading BCD Counters

Cascading BCD Counters : Fig. 7-32 Count and Display numbers from 000 to 999 2 Implementation
1) 74LS293 wired as a MOD-10 counter 2) 74LS90 74LS192/HC192 BCD IC counter

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7-14 Synchronous Counter Design

Design a 3 bits Counter 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, (Undesired State : 5, 6, 7) : Tab. 7-3 Design Procedure 1) Determine the desired number of bits(FFs) and the desired counting sequence
FFs = 3 , Desired Sequence = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, .

2) Draw the state transition diagram : Fig. 7-33 3) Tabulate present/next state table : Tab. 7-4
Use the state transition diagram to setup a present/next state table

4) Tabulate circuit excitation table : Tab. 7-5

Add a column to this table for each J and K input by using Tab. 7-2

JK F/F Q(t) Q(t+1) J 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 X 1 1 X

K X X 1 0

J 0 0 1 1

K 0 1 0 1

Q(t+1) Q(t) no change 0 clear to 0 1 set to 1 Q(t)' Complement

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5) Design logic circuits to generate the levels required at each J and K input
J A C , KA 1 FF A : Fig. 7-34 FF B : Fig. 7-35(b) J B AC , K B A B FF C : Fig. 7-35(a) J C AB, KC 1

6) Implement the final expressions : Fig. 7-36

Stepper Motor Control Step Motor Drive Circuit(with Direction Control) : Fig. 7-37(a) State Transition Diagram : Fig. 7-37(b) Circuit Excitation Table : Tab. 7-6 K-map Simplification : Fig. 7-38 Implementation : Fig. 7-39

7-15 Shift-Register Counters

Shift-Register Transfer data left to right, or vice versa, one bit at a time(serially) Shift-register counters use feedback
the output of the last FF in the register is connected back to the first FF in some way

Ring Counter In most instances only a single 1 is in the register

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MOD-4 Ring Counter : Fig. 7-40

4 distinct states

Ring counters can be constructed for any desired MOD number

A MOD-N ring counter used N flip-flops

Starting a Ring Counter A ring counter must start off with only one FF in the 1 state and all the others in the 0 state Ring Counter Starter : Fig. 7-41
1) On power-up, the capacitor will charge up relatively slowly toward Vcc, Inverter 1 input = 0 2) Inverter 1 output = 1, Inverter 2 output = 0 until Inverter 1 input = 1

Q3 = PRE, Q2 = Q1 = Q0 = CLR 1 0 0 0 Preset

Johnson Counter/Twisted Ring Counter The inverted output of the last FF is connected to the input of the first FF 3 bits Johnson counter : Fig. 7-42
MOD-6(six distinct states) : 000, 100, 110, 111, 011, and 001 50 percent duty cycle square wave at one-sixth the frequency of the clock MOD-N counter(N= even number) by connecting N/2 FFs

MOD-10 Johnson Counter : 5 FF

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Decoding a Johnson Counter For a given MOD number, a Johnson counter requires only half the number of FFs that a ring counter requires
MOD-8 Ring Counter : 8 FFs MOD-8 Johnson Counter : 4 FFs

Ring Counter does not require decoding gates

only one FF in the 1 state and all the others in the 0 state : Fig. 7-40(c) Sequence Table

Johnson Counter requires decoding gates : Fig. 7-43

Each decoding gate has only two inputs, even though there are three FFs in the counter

Two of the three FFs are in a unique combination of states

Q2 0 1 1 1 0 0 Q1 0 0 1 1 1 0 Q0 0 0 0 1 1 1 Count 0 1 2 3 4 5

IC Shift-Register Counters Ring/Johnson Counter IC CMOS Johnson-Counter : 74HC4017, 74HC4022

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7-16 Counter Applications : Frequency Counter

Frequency Counter : Fig. 7-44 Counter + Decoder/Display + AND gate Sampling Interval : SAMPLE pulse goes HIGH from t1 to t2
During this sampling interval the unknown frequency pulses(fx) will pass through the AND gate and will be counted by the counter The accuracy of this method depends almost entirely on the duration of the sampling interval

The sampling Interval must be very accurately controlled

Exam. 7-18) The unknown frequency is 3792 pulses per second(pps). Determine the counter reading after a sampling interval of (a) 1 s, (b) 0.1 s, and (c)10ms (a) 1 s : 3792 (b) 0.1 s : 379.2, 379 or 380 (c) 0.01 s : 37.92, 37 or 38 A method for obtaining accurate sampling interval : Fig. 7-45 Crystal Oscillator : generate a very accurate 100-kHz waveform Decade Counter : divide 100-kHz frequency by 10 Rotary Switch : select one of the decade-counter output Flip-Flop : 2
In position 1 : 1 Hz / 2 = 0.5 Hz

Q = 0.5 Hz = 1 / 0.5 Hz = 2 T, HIGH T (Sampling Interval)

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Chap. 7 Counters and Registers

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Exam. 7-19) The unknown input frequency is between 1, 000 pps and 9,990 pps, what is the best setting for the switch position in Fig. 7-45 with 3 BCD counter and display. With three BCD counter : total capacity = 000 - 999
0.1 s sampling interval : 100 - 999

Complete Frequency Counter : Fig. 7-46 X : FF (= One-shot Clock input)

SAMPLE pulse 2 100ns One-shot pulse Trigger Counter Clear . AND gate SAMPLE pulse X HIGH Counter

) Sampling Interval = 1 s, unknown frequency = 237 pps

t1 - t2 : X = 0 t2 - t3 : Counter is cleared to 0 and display 0 for 1 s ( = sample interval = 1 s ) t3 - t4 : Counter 1 s 0 - 237 Count t4 - t6 : 2 s 237 Display

7-17 Counter Application : Digital Clock

Digital Clock operating from 60 Hz : Fig. 7-47 Schmitt-trigger circuit : produce square pulses at the rate of 60 pps MOD-60 Counter : divide the 60 pps down to 1 pps

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Detailed Hour Section : Fig. 7-48 MOD-2 ( 0 -1 ) + MOD-10 ( 0 - 9 ) Counter

MOD-10 Counter : 74LS192(Presettable BCD Counter) MOD-2 Counter : JK Flip-Flop 12 13 74LS192 PL = 0 (74LS112 Clear), = 1( P3 P2 P1 P0 = 0 0 0 1) .

3 Input NAND gate X = 1, Q1 Q0 = 11(3) PL Enabled

Q3 = 1, = 9 = 1 ( 09

10).

7-18 IC Registers
1) Parallel in/Parallel out : 74174, 74178

2) Serial in/Serial out : 4731B

3) Parallel in/Serial out : 74165 4) Serial in/Parallel out : 74164

7-19 Parallel in/Parallel out : 74174 and 74178

74174 and 74HC174( 6 bit register ) : Fig. 7-49

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Exam. 7-20A) How to connect 74ALS174 so that D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 ( = data input at D5 and data output at Q0 ). Fig. 7-50 Exam. 7-20B) How to connect two 74ALS174 to operate as a 12 bit shift register. Connect the Q0 of the first IC to the D5 of the second IC.

7-20 Serial in/Serial out : 4731B

4731B(CMOS Quad 64-bit) : Fig. 7-51 64 D-type Flip-Flop : 4 one chip 256 FF Buffer circuit : Q63 (triangle symbol with no inversion bubble)
A buffer does not change the signals logic level It is used to provide a greater output-current capability than normal

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Exam. 7-21) Delay circuit using 4731B chip : Fig. 7-52 Q63 goes HIGH approximately 64 clock cycles after Ds input

7-21 Parallel in/Serial out : 74165, 74LS165, and 74HC165

8-bit parallel in/serial out register : Fig. 7-53 Truth Table
SH/LD CP CP INH

Contents

Response

0 1 1

X 0 1

Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 P0 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 Parallel Load Ds Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Right Shift Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 No Change

Exam. 7-22) Determine (a)the conditions necessary to load the register with parallel data, (b) the conditions necessary for the shifting operation (a) SH/LD = 0 : only Q7 will be externally available (b) SH/LD = 1, CP INH = 0, and PGT Clock Pulse at CP

Exam. 7-23) What signal will appear at Q7(Q7=Ds, CP=200kHz, CP INH=0) 8-bit Johnson counter divided by 16 = 12.5 kHz

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7-22 Serial in/Parallel out : 74164, 74LS164, and 74HC164

8-bit serial in/parallel out shift register : Fig. 7-54 Each FF output externally accessible : Q0, Q1, , Q7 2 input AND gate : one input can be used for control Exam. 7-24) Determine the sequence of states in Fig. 7-55(a) (Initial Content of the 74ALS164 = 00000000) The correct sequence : Fig. 7-57(b)
Q7 =1 : Temporary state

LOW at MR ( inverted Q7 ) resets the register back to 00000000

Other Register ICs

74194/LS194/HC194 : 4 bit bi-directional universal shift register 4 mode : shift left, shift right, parallel in, parallel out ( selected by 2 bit mode select code as inputs ) 74373/LS373/HC373 : 8 bit parallel in/parallel out register 8 D latch with tri-state outputs : Data or Address bus buffer
Pin 11 : Latch Enable(LE) Level trigger = 1 8 D0 - D7 8 Q0 - Q7 ( Transparent Latch )

74374/LS374/HC374 : 8 bit parallel in/parallel out register 8 edge-triggered D Flip-Flops with tri-state outputs
Pin 11 : Clock Pulse(CP) Edge trigger(PGT) 373
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Chap. 7 Counters and Registers

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7-24 Trouble Shooting

p. 333, Fig. 7-12

Exam. 7-25) Determine the possible faults of MOD-10 counter in Fig. 7-57(a) ( The displayed waveforms of the Q output with an oscilloscope are shown in Fig. 7-57(b) ) : Q1, Q2, and Q3(except Q0) are stuck in the LOW state :
1) 2) 3) 4) Q1 : internally or externally shorted to ground MR1 : internally shorted to ground (Q1=0) Q0 CP1 Open : Q1 Clock Input IC internal fault

Exam. 7-26) 4 , Fig. 7-58 Q1 glitch . ? MR2 Open : MR2 = HIGH in TTL
Q1 glitch 0 reset , MOD-2 ( 0, 1 )

Exam. 7-27) The displayed frequency is exactly twice in Fig. 7-46, What is the probable cause for the malfunction ? 3 input AND gate Open : SAMPLE pulse = HIGH:
t3 t4 sampling , t2 t4 sampling .

Exam. 7-28) The HOURS section displays in the manner shown in Tab. 7-7 . ? ( p. 382, Fig. 7-48 ) 74LS192 Q3 Q2 74LS112 CLK
9
Digital Systems

0 X = 1 , 7

8 X = 1 .
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7-25. Programming PLDs as Counter Circuits using Boolean Equations

General Architecture of GAL PLD .D extension : F/F output is connected to the PLD output pin.

Q4.D = F/F Q4 = Q4 next state

Exam. 7-29 Design 3-bit MOD 6 Johnson Counter using GAL 16v8 ( p. 373, Fig. 742 ) Present-Next State Table : Tab. 7-8
Q2.D = 000 or 100 or 110; Q1.D = 100 or 110 or 111; Q0.D = 110 or 111 or 011;

Another Method : field name twisted

D input should be 100(4) if the present state of twisted 000(0) OR CUPL file : Fig. 7-60
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Chap. 7 Counters and Registers