LEARNING DEVELOPMENT

ACTIVE

LEARNING: CONSTRUCTIVISM

Constructivism:

BUILDING KNOWLEDGE THROUGH EXPERIENCE

 Reflecting on our

experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in.

The History of Constructivism

The Main Men

Socrates 469-399 BC: asked directed questions

that led students to realize for themselves the weaknesses in their thinking, encouraged dialogue

Jean Piaget 1896-1980: knowledge is build on

experiences that creates schemas, ages and stages of development (Cognitive Constructivism)

Lev Vygotsky 1896-1934: knowledge comes

from cultural and social influences and experiences with peers, teachers, parents, etc. (Social Constructivism) active process, new ideas based on current or previous knowledge

Jerome Bruner 1915-present: learning is an

HOW CONSTRUCTIVISM IMPACTS LEARNING

Curriculum
calls for the elimination of a

standardized curriculum promotes using curricula customized to the students' prior knowledge emphasizes hands-on problem solving

How Constructivism Impacts Learning cont.

Assessment
calls for the elimination of grades

and standardized testing becomes part of the learning process so that students play a larger role in judging their own progress (self-assessment)

Comparison to Traditional Classroom Learning

There are significant differences in basic assumptions about knowledge, students, and learning that exist between traditional and constructivist-based classrooms.

A Classroom Comparison
BEHAVIORIST
Basic skills Fixed curriculum
Textbooks, workbooks Repetition Teacher directed

CONSTRUCTIVIST
Big concepts Student driven curriculum Manipulatives, etc. Interactive, build on schema Student directed Knowledge is dynamic Cooperative learning Authentic, ongoing assessment

Knowledge is inert Individual work Traditional testing

The Downfalls of Constructivism

Time Consuming for teacher and

learner Higher demands on learners Difficult to create detailed lesson plan because so much variation is possible Not the only orientation to learning you will ever need

What is constructivism?
Constructivism is basically a theory -- based on observation and scientific study -- about how

people learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience, maybe changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge. To do this, we must ask questions, explore, and assess what we know.

 In the classroom, the constructivist view of

learning can point towards a number of different teaching practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging students to use active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more knowledge and then to reflect on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing. The teacher makes sure she understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and then build on them.

 Constructivist teachers encourage students

to constantly assess how the activity is helping them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, students in the constructivist classroom ideally become "expert learners." This gives them ever-broadening tools to keep learning. With a well-planned classroom environment, the students learn HOW TO LEARN.

 Constructivism is also often misconstrued as a learning

theory that compels students to "reinvent the wheel." In fact, constructivism taps into and triggers the student's innate curiosity about the world and how things work. Students do not reinvent the wheel but, rather, attempt to understand how it turns, how it functions. They become engaged by applying their existing knowledge and realworld experience, learning to hypothesize, testing their theories, and ultimately drawing conclusions from their findings. The best way for you to really understand what constructivism is and what it means in your classroom is by seeing examples of it at work, speaking with others about it, and trying it yourself. As you progress through each segment of this workshop, keep in mind questions or ideas to share with your colleagues

What does constructivism have to do with my classroom?

prompt students to formulate their own

questions (inquiry) allow multiple interpretations and expressions of learning (multiple intelligences) encourage group work and the use of peers as resources (collaborative learning)

 In a constructivist classroom, learning is . . .

Students are not blank slates upon which knowledge is etched. They come to learning situations with already formulated knowledge, ideas, and understandings. This previous knowledge is the raw material for the new knowledge they will create.

The student is the person who creates new understanding for him/herself. The teacher coaches, moderates, suggests, but allows the students room to experiment, ask questions, try things that don't work. Learning activities require the students' full participation (like hands-on experiments). An important part of the learning process is that students reflect on, and talk about, their activities. Students also help set their own goals and means of assessment.

 Students control their own learning process, and

they lead the way by reflecting on their experiences. This process makes them experts of their own learning. The teacher helps create situations where the students feel safe questioning and reflecting on their own processes, either privately or in group discussions. The teacher should also create activities that lead the student to reflect on his or her prior knowledge and experiences. Talking about what was learned and how it was learned is really important.

 The constructivist classroom relies heavily on collaboration among students. There are many reasons why collaboration contributes to

learning. The main reason it is used so much in constructivism is that students learn about learning not only from themselves, but also from their peers. When students review and reflect on their learning processes together, they can pick up strategies and methods from one another.

 The main activity in a constructivist

classroom is solving problems. Students use inquiry methods to ask questions, investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to find solutions and answers. As students explore the topic, they draw conclusions, and, as exploration continues, they revisit those conclusions. Exploration of questions leads to more questions.

 Students have ideas that they may later see

were invalid, incorrect, or insufficient to explain new experiences. These ideas are temporary steps in the integration of knowledge. For instance, a child may believe that all trees lose their leaves in the fall, until she visits an evergreen forest. Constructivist teaching takes into account students' current conceptions and builds from there

Traditional Classroom Teaching vs. Constructivism Classroom Teaching

Traditional Classroom Teaching vs. Constructivism Classroom Teaching

traditional

classroom

Student primarily work alone Curriculum is presented part to whole, with emphasis on

basic skills Strict adherence to a fixed curriculum Curricular activities rely heavily on textbooks of data and manipulative materials Students are viewed as "blank slates" Teachers generally behave in a didactic manner, Teachers seek the correct answers to validate student lessons. Assessment of student learning is viewed as separate from teaching and occurs almost entirely through testing.

Constructivist Classroom
Students primarily work in groups Curriculum is presented whole to part with emphasis on the

big concept Pursuit of student questions is highly valued. Students are viewed as thinkers with emerging theories about the world Teachers generally behave as facilitators Teachers seek the student's point of view in order to understand student learning for use later on Assessment of student learning is interwoven with teaching and occurs through teacher observation of students at work and through exhibitions and portfolios.

10 basic guiding principles of constructivist thinking that educators must keep in mind:
It takes time to learn Learning is an active process in which the student

constructs meaning out of People learn to learn Learning involves language Learning is a social activity Learning is contextual The act of constructing meaning is mental Every one needs knowledge to learn Learning is not the passive acceptance of knowledge it takes work Motivation is a major aspect of learning

Traditional Classroom
Curriculum begins with the parts of the whole. Emphasizes basic skills. Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is highly valued. Materials are primarily textbooks and workbooks.

Constructivist classroom
Curriculum emphasizes big concepts, beginning with the whole and expanding to include the parts. Pursuit of student questions and interests is valued. Materials include primary sources of material and manipulative materials. Learning is interactive, building on what the student already knows. Teachers have a dialogue with students, helping students construct their own knowledge. Teacher's role is interactive, rooted in negotiation. Assessment includes student works, observations, and points of view, as well as tests. Process is as important as product. Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing with our experiences. Students work primarily in groups.

Learning is based on repetition.

Teachers disseminate information to students; students are recipients of knowledge. Teacher's role is directive, rooted in authority. Assessment is through testing, correct answers.

Knowledge is seen as inert.

Students work primarily alone.

ACCOMODATION AND ASSIMILATION

Adaptation: Two Mechanisms

Assimilation:
Interpreting or construing environmental events in

terms of ones existing cognitive structures and ways of thinking

Accommodation:
Changing ones existing cognitive structures and ways

of thinking to apprehend environmental events

Piagetian Theory: Assimilation and Accommodation:

Adapt to new information

Assimilation
Reinterpret new experiences so they fit into old ideas existing ideas dont change, stay same

Accommodation

Revamp old ideas so they can adapt to new change current ways of thinking/ideas so as to add new knowledge

Adaptation:
Adaptation involves building schemes, or psychological structures,

through direct interaction with the environment. According to Piaget, adaptation consists of two complementary activities:
noticing that current thinking does not capture the environment completely.

Assimilation using current schemes to interpret the external world. Accommodation adjusting old schemes or creating new ones after

Piaget used the term disequalibration to describe the implementation

of assimilation and accommodation to create equilibrium between thinking and reality.

This construction occurs through the adaptation

to the environment

Assimilation
Cognitive process by

which a person integrates new perceptual matter or stimulus events into existing schemes Part of the adaptation process by which individual cognitively adapts to and organizes the environment Ongoing process

Accommodation
Creation of new schemes

or modification of old schemes Reflects a failure of assimilation Accommodation occurs, then assimilation tried again Assimilation is always the end-product

LEARNING DEVELOPMENT
2. PIAGETS STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Organization

Piaget believed that human beings inherited the tendency to organize

Stages of Development
Piaget believed that children move through four stages of

development.
Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal

Operational.

Through these stages exploratory behaviors of infants are

transformed into the abstract, logical intelligence of adolescence and adulthood. Piagets stage sequence has two important characteristics:
It is invariant stages always follow a fixed order. It is universal stages are assumed to describe the cognitive

development of children everywhere.

Stages of Development
Piaget believed that the development of qualitatively different cognitive structures

occurred through the processes of assimilation and accommodation.

When a qualitative change occurs, the infant/child enters a new stage of development

Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Pre-operational Concrete operational Formal operational

Piagets Periods of Cognitive Development

Formal Operational Concrete Operational Preoperational Sensorimotor 0-2 2-7 7 - 12 12+

The Sensorimotor Stage

According to Piaget, at birth infants know so little that

they cannot purposefully explore their surroundings. Circular reactions provide newborns with a special means of adapting their first schemes.
It involves stumbling onto a new experience caused by the

babys motor activity. The reaction is circular because the infant tries to repeat the event again and again. As a result, the accidental response becomes strengthened into a new scheme.

From Sensorimotor to Pre-Operational: Object Permanence

Object Permanence develops in this phase.
The first development takes place in stage 3, at 410 months. In stage 4 (10 - 12 months) object permanence becomes more prominent in childrens play. Infants have a completely developed sense of object permanence before entering Preoperational thought.

Object Permanence
Until stage 3, infants have no sense of objects outside of themselves.
As they mature, their egocentrism fades, and they begin to recognize that the world exists outside of their own perception of it. A happy 8 month old baby, playing with her ball... until, the ball rolls out of her sight... and to her it is completely gone!

Stage 2: Pre-operational (2-6 yrs)

Infants do trial-and-error internally Infants actions and thinking are not limited to

objects that are here and now Begin to develop the ability (around 5 but 3-4 years) to conserve the qualitative and quantitative identity of objects even when they change perceptually By 6 years, can distinguish between current appearance and reality

PreOperational Stage
Age of curiosity
Physical actions become internalized

mental representations

Stage 2: Pre-operational (2-6 yrs)

Limitations
Egocentrism: All

representation of the world is from ones own perspective

- Centration: Focuses on only one aspect of a problem at a time

- Animism: Thinks that inanimate objects have qualities of living things

Stage 3: Concrete Operational Child is more logical and able to complete task not able to in Pre-Operation (6-12 yrs) period.

Thinking is still with real or concrete objects and actions, and not yet abstract thinking

Conservation of Number is mastered by age 6 Conservation of Length & Weight is mastered by age 8 or 9 Class Inclusion - A subclass cannot be larger than the superordinate class that includes it

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget viewed the concrete operational stage as a major

turning point in cognitive development.

During this stage thought more closely resembles that of adults

than that of the sensorimotor or preoperational child.

Concrete operational reasoning is far more logical, flexible, and

organized than thinking during the preschool period.

But concreter operational thinking suffers from one important

limitation:
Children think in an organized, logical fashion only when dealing with

concrete information they can directly perceive.

Concrete Operational Stage

This stage is characterized by seven types of conservation:

number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, and volume.

Concrete Operational Stage

Intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible).

Egocentric thought diminishes.

Stage 4: Formal Operational

The ability to think logically about things that are only possible and not necessarily real (or concrete) -- abstract thinking Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
Not everyone reaches this stage:
Studies have indictated that science and math

students better at this

Formal Operational Stage

According to Piaget, the capacity for abstract thinking

begins with the formal operational stage.

Adolescents reason much like a scientist searching for

solutions in the laboratory.

Concrete operational children can only operate on reality,

formal operational adolescents can operate on operations.

Concrete things and events are no longer required as objects

of thought.
Adolescents can come up with new, more general logical

rules through internal reflection.

Formal Operational Stage

Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical manipulation of symbols related to abstract concepts. Early in this period there is a return to egocentric thought. Many adults never attain this stage.

Piagets Periods of Cognitive Development

Birth to years 2-6 yrs 2 Sensori-motor Uses senses and motor skills, items known by use Symbolic thinking, language used; egocentric thinking Object permanence learned Imagination/ experience grow, child de-centers

Preoperational

7-11 yrs

Concrete operational
Formal operational

Logic applied, has objective/rational interpretations

Thinks abstractly, hypothetical ideas (broader issues)

Conservation, numbers, ideas, classifications

Ethics, politics, social/moral issues explored

12 yrs to adulthood

Focus on organization and adaptation

LEARNING DEVELOPMENT:

2. Piagets stages of development

Summary of the Theory

Learning is a search for meaning

Meaning requires understanding

wholes as well as parts

The purpose of learning is for an

individual to construct his or her own meaning, not just memorize the "right" answers and regurgitate someone else's meaning.

Summary of the Theory

Learners construct their own understanding and

knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences modifying existing schema)

Active creators of our own knowledge (adding to or

Constructivist Buzzwords:

cooperative learning settings student-centered classrooms problem solving inquiry-based

3. CRITICISM OF PIAGETS STAGES LEARNING DEVELOPMENT

Problems With Research Methods

Much of the criticism of Piaget's work is in

regards to his research methods. A major source of inspiration for the theory was Piaget's observations of his own three children

Problems With Formal Operations

Research has disputed Piaget's argument

that all children will automatically move to the next stage of development as they mature. Some data suggests that environmental factors may play a role in the development of formal operations. Underestimates Children's Abilities

Over simplification of structrually distinct stages:

Data has shown that there does not seem to

be the consistency of thinking at each stage of development that Piaget believed. For example, students may understand the conservation of number effectively, but may not be able to conceive the conservation of weight.

Vygotskys View of

Cognitive Development

Vygotskys View of Cognitive Development

Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist

who, though a contemporary of Piaget, died in 1934, only 38 when he died of tuberculosis, but he had produced over 100 books and articles
Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory development is

product of social and cultural experiences

Key ideas (Social-cultural theory )

he proposed that intellectual development can be

understood only in terms of the historical and cultural contexts children experience In contrast to Piaget, Vygotaky proposed that cognitive development is strongly linked to input from others. he believed that development depends on the sign systems that individuals grow up with ZPD (THE ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT ) SCAFFOLDING

For example
A six-year-old has lost a toy and asks her

father for help. The father asks her where she last saw the toy; the child says : I can't remember." He asks a series of questions: Did you have it in your room? Outside? Next door? To each question, the child answers, no.' When he says "in the car?" she says "1 think so" and goes to retrieve the to

Difference to Piagets
Creative Thinking:

view

What are the differences between Piagtets and Vygotskys

theores of Egocentric and Private Speech?

Theoretical Perspectives on Development: Contextual Perspectives: Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory

1)

Did NOT focus on the individual child but on the child as a product of social interaction, especially with adults (parents, teachers).

2.) Focus on INTERACTIONS (e.g., child being taught by a parent how to perform some culturally specific action), rather than child by himself

 3.) Social world mediates children's

cognitive development. Cognitive development occurs as child's thinking is molded by society in the form of parents, teachers, and peers. This leads to peer tutoring as a strategy in classrooms.

Child language acquisition First and second

Language Acquisition
Language Development
Phonological development

Semantic development
Syntactic development and syntactic

categories

Second language acquisition

Factors that affect our chances of learning

L2:
Individual differences Age of acquisition effects Environment of learning Style of instruction--conejo is rabbit

Stages of second language acquisition

Child First Language Acquisition: Young Children Talking

3 months 6 months 9 months 12 months 18 months 24 months 36 month

Child First Language Acquisition

Babbling Words Sounds and Pronunciation Syntax Morphology

Is Language Behavior?
Predictions of behaviorism for first

language acquisition:
Children would make many errors. Errors would differ from child to child.

The level of linguistic attainment would differ

from child to child.

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Language acquisition is the study of the

processes through which humans acquire language. By itself, language acquisition refers to first language acquisition, which studies infants' acquisition of their native language, whereas second language acquisition deals with acquisition of additional languages in both children and adults.

STAGES IN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Babbling: linguistic ability. Auditory input Holophrastic stage. Childrens utterance is one

word. Telegraphic stage: Starting to put words together into sentences. The words and sentences that children produce at each stage of development conform to the set of grammatical rules. Humans are born with a predisposition to discover the units that serve to express linguistic meaning.

Language Development
Language Stage

Age Crying! Cooing! Babbling! Intonation patterns! One-word utterances! Two-word utterances! Word inflections! Questions, negations! Rare and complex constructions! Mature speech!

Beginning Birth 6 weeks 6 months 8 months 1 year 18 months 2 years 2 1/4 years 5 years 10 years

Pre-Verbal Language Development

Crying: Non-linguistic Though some language Cooing: Non-linguistic. Exercising the articulatory Babbling: here infants are clearly producing syllable like sounds. No meaning attached to the
specific elements. apparatus. Imitation and the beginning of turn-taking.

babble. Syllables are often found in repetitive sequences (babababa). Children clearly utilise their babling to tune their vocalisation to the sounds of the local language. Babbling as part of the biologically determined maturation of language abilities. Babbling drift: Around 9-14 months infants restrict their babbling to native language sounds.

First words
Shortly before their first birthday, babies

begin to understand words, and around that birthday, they start to produce them. Words are usually produced in isolation; this one-word stage can last from two months to a year. There are words for actions, motions, and routines, like (up, off, open, eat, and go, and modifiers, like hot, all gone, more, dirty, and cold.

Lexical Development
Children start producing their first words around

12 months. Words are used holophrastically: A word stands for an entire sentence. By 24 months they have an expressive vocabulary of between 50 to 600 words. Experience matters for vocabulary growth. Privileged children hear about 2,100 words/hour. Disadvantaged children hear only about 600 words/hour.

Syntactic Development
18-24 Months: Two-word utterances 95% of utterances: Correct word order. Telegraphic speech (few function words).

Bilingualism Defined
Bilingualism is the ability to master the

use of two languages, and multilingualism is the ability to master the use of more than two languages.

Consequences of Bilingualism
Interrelation among the two languages
Language dominance issue

Selectivity of activation in the two

languages Relative activation of the two languages

THEORIES OF BILINGUAL DEVELOPMENT

The unitary system hypothesis children

initially construct one lexicon one grammar The separate system hypothesis the bilingual child builds a distinct lexicon and grammar for each language. Bilingual children develops their grammar along the same line as monolingual children. The rule of the thumb is that children receive equal input in the two languages to achieve native proficiency in both.

Childrens Second Language Acquisition Stages and related linguistic Patterns (Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell,
STAGE 1. PRE-PRODUCTION (Silent Period):
Minimal comprehension; No verbal production. Up to 500 words in their receptive Vocabulary. They need Repetition.
1983)

STAGE 2. EARLY PRODUCTION:

Limited comprehension one/two- word response. Vocabulary of 1000 words

.STAGE 3. SPEECH EMERGENCE:

Increased Comprehension; Simple sentences; Some errors in speech. Vocabulary of 3,000 words.

Childrens Second Language Acquisition

STAGE 4. INTERMEDIATE FLUENCY:
Very good comprehension; More complex

sentences and concepts; Complex errors in speech. Able to synthesize and make inferences. Vocabulary of 6,000 active words.

STAGE 5 ADVANCED FLUENCY:

Near- native in their ability; From 4-10 years to

achieve cognitive academic language proficiency.

Theories of Language Acquisition

Empiricism: This school is based on four theories or

hypothesizes. The stimulus theory, the correctness theory; trial and errors theory, and the imitation theory. The empiricists believe that the actual experience is the source of ideas. The mind is at first a Tabula Rasa, they believe that we have no special inborn capacity to acquire language. Language is entirely learnt through environmental stimulus and behavioural response. The empiricists believe that the child imitates the adult in speaking.

RATIONALISM The rationalists believe that the reason is the chief source of knowledge. They stress on the fact that children acquire language so readily because it is in their genes. They also believe that children are born with a capacity to acquire many languages.

Do children learn language by imitation?

Close observation of babies acquiring their

first language show that children do not imitate and that also children do not hear the corrections. Children behave as efficient linguists; they form linguistic rules and apply them by generalization. The over-generalization process does not occur in adults speech and this is another proof against the hypothesis of imitation.