Applications of Nuclear Physics
Applications of Nuclear Physics
Applications of Nuclear Physics
Applications of Nuclear
Physics
Processes of Nuclear Energy
Fission
A nucleus of large mass number splits into
two smaller nuclei
Fusion
Two light nuclei fuse to form a heavier
nucleus
Large amounts of energy are released
in either case
Interactions Involving
Neutrons
Because of their charge neutrality,
neutrons are not subject to Coulomb
forces
As a result, they do not interact
electrically with electrons or the nucleus
Neutrons can easily penetrate deep into
an atom and collide with the nucleus
Fast Neutrons
A fast neutron has energy greater than 1 MeV
During its many collisions when traveling
through matter, the neutron gives up some of
its kinetic energy to a nucleus
For some materials and fast neutrons, elastic
collisions dominate
These materials are called moderators since they
moderate the originally energetic neutrons very
efficiently
Thermal Neutrons
Most neutrons bombarding a moderator
will be come thermal neutrons
They are in thermal equilibrium with the
moderator material
Their average kinetic energy at room
temperature is about 0.04 eV
This corresponds to a neutron root-mean-
square speed of about 2 800 m/s
Thermal neutrons have a distribution of speeds
Neutron Capture
Once the energy of a neutron is sufficiently
low, there is a high probability that it will be
captured by a nucleus
The neutron capture equation can be written
as
1
0 n+ X→
A
Z
A +1
Z X* → A +1
Z X+γ
The excited state lasts for a very short time
The product nucleus is generally radioactive and
decays by beta emission
Nuclear Fission
A heavy nucleus splits into two
smaller nuclei
Fission is initiated when a heavy
nucleus captures a thermal neutron
The total mass of the products is less
than the original mass of the heavy
nucleus
This difference in mass is called the
mass defect
Short History of Fission
First observed in 1939 by Otto Hahn
and Fritz Strassman following basic
studies by Fermi
Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch soon
explained what had happened
Fission Equation: 235U
Fission of 235U by a thermal neutron
1
0 n+ 235
92 U→ 92 U* → X + Y + neutrons
236
2
1 H 21H 31H 11H Q 403
. MeV
2
1 H 31H 42 He 01n Q 1759
. MeV
Considerations for a Fusion
Reactor, cont.
Tritium is radioactive and must be
produced artificially
The Coulomb repulsion between two
charged nuclei must be overcome
before they can fuse
Potential Energy Function
The potential energy is
positive in the region r >
R, where the Coulomb
repulsive force
dominates
It is negative where the
nuclear force dominates
The problem is to give
the nuclei enough
kinetic energy to
overcome this repulsive
force
Critical Ignition Temperature
The temperature at
which the power
generation rate in any
fusion reaction exceeds
the lost rate is called
the critical ignition
temperature, Tignit
The intersection of the
Pgen with the Plost line is
the Tignit
Requirements for Successful
Thermonuclear Reactor
High temperature ~ 108 K
Needed to give nuclei enough energy to overcome
Coulomb forces
At these temperatures, the atoms are ionized,
forming a plasma
Plasma ion density, n
The number of ions present
Plasma confinement time, τ
The time interval during which energy injected into
the plasma remains in the plasma
Lawson’s Criteria
Lawson’s criteria states
that a net power output
in a fusion reactor is
possible under the
following conditions
nτ ≥ 1014 s/cm3 for
deuterium-tritium
nτ ≥ 1016 s/cm3 for
deuterium-deuterium
These are the minima
on the curves
Requirements, Summary
The plasma temperature must be very high
To meet Lawson’s criterion, the product nτ
must be large
For a given value of n, the probability of fusion
between two particles increases as τ increases
For a given value of τ, the collision rate increases as n
increases
Confinement is still a problem
Confinement Techniques
Magnetic confinement
Uses magnetic fields to confine the plasma
Inertial confinement
Particles’ inertia keeps them confined very
close to their initial positions
Magnetic Confinement
One magnetic confinement
device is called a tokamak
Two magnetic fields confine
the plasma inside the donut
A strong magnetic field is
produced in the windings
A weak magnetic field is
produced by the toroidal
current
The field lines are helical,
they spiral around the
plasma, and prevent it from
touching the wall of the
vacuum chamber
Fusion Reactors Using
Magnetic Confinement
TFTR – Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor
Close to values required by Lawson criterion
NSTX – National Spherical Torus Experiment
Produces a spherical plasma with a hole in the center
Is able to confine the plasma with a high pressure
ITER – International Thermonuclear
Experimental Reactor
An international collaboration involving four major
fusion programs is working on building this reactor
It will address remaining technological and scientific
issues concerning the feasibility of fusion power
Inertial Confinement
Uses a D-T target that has a very high
particle density
Confinement time is very short
Therefore, because of their own inertia, the
particles do not have a chance to move from their
initial positions
Lawson’s criterion can be satisfied by
combining high particle density with a short
confinement time
Laser Fusion
Laser fusion is the most
common form of inertial
confinement
A small D-T pellet is struck
simultaneously by several
focused, high intensity laser
beams
This large input energy causes
the target surface to evaporate
The third law reaction causes
an inward compression shock
wave
This increases the temperature
Fusion Reactors Using Inertial
Confinement
Omega facility
University of Rochester (NY)
Focuses 24 laser beams on the target
Nova facility
Lawrence Livermore National Lab (CA)
Focuses 10 laser beams on the target
Has achieved nτ ≈ 5 x 1014 s/cm3
Fusion Reactor Design –
Energy
In the D-T reaction,
the alpha particle
carries 20% of the
energy and the
neutron carries 80%
The neutrons are
about 14 MeV
Active Figure 45.14