LECTURE 9

Role of leaders and the parliament with regard to national consensus on public policy issues

Leadership
Definitions The ability of a superior to influence the behaviour of subordinates and persuade them to follow a particular course of action. (Barnard 1938) Leadership: is a major way in which people change the minds of others and move organizations forward to accomplish identified goals.

Nature of Leadership
Effective leadership is a key factor in the life and success of an organization. Leadership is the ultimate act which brings to success all of the potent potential that is in an organization and its people. Leaders propose new paradigms when old ones lose their effectiveness. Leadership transforms potential into reality.

Leadership Theories
Over time, a number of theories of leadership have been proposed, including: 1. Great Man 2. Trait 3. Contingency 4. Situational 5. Behavioural 6. Participative 7. Management 8. Relationship

Great Man Theory

It assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent that great leaders are born, not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.

Trait Theory
Similar in some ways to Great Man theories, trait theories assume that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioural characteristics shared by leaders. For example, traits like extraversion(more purified), self-confidence, and courage are all traits that could potentially be linked to great leaders. If particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership. There are plenty of people who possess the personality traits associated with leadership, yet many of these people never seek out positions of leadership.

Contingency Theory
Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers and aspects of the situation.

Situational Leadership
Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making. For example, in a situation where the leader is the most knowledgeable and experienced member of a group, an authoritarian style might be most appropriate. In other instances where group members are skilled experts, a democratic style would be more effective.

Behavioural Theory
Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Consider it the flip-side of the Great Man theories. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.

Participative Theory
Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decisionmaking process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.

Management Theory
Management theories, also known as transactional theories, focus on the role of supervision, organization and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and punishments. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished. Learn more about theories of transactional leadership.

Relationship Theory
Relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. These leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfil his or her potential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards.

Leadership Qualities
There are some leadership qualities which a leader should have: Visionary Honest Leading from the front Ideological Approach Man of Principles Stead fast Initiative Takers Strong Character

Styles of Leadership and their Characteristics

Charismatic leadership It is widely believed that charismatic leaders have the following personal characteristics: they have extremely high confidence; they show obedience and strong conviction of their beliefs; they have a compelling sense of vision and purpose; they communicate this vision clearly to followers to identify with; they consistently focus on and pursue their vision; they know their own strengths and capitalise on them

Transactional leadership:

Style of leadership that is based on the setting of clear objectives and goals for the followers as well as the use of either punishments or rewards in order to encourage compliance with these goals.

Transactional leadership styles are more concerned with maintaining the normal flow of operations. Transactional leadership can be described as "keeping the ship afloat." Transactional leaders use disciplinary power and an array of incentives to motivate employees to perform at their best. The term "transactional" refers to the fact that this type of leader essentially motivates subordinates by exchanging rewards for performance. A transactional leader generally does not look ahead in strategically guiding an organization to a position of market leadership; instead, these managers are solely concerned with making sure everything flows smoothly today. transactional leadership is characterized by the following factors: Contingency rewards where the leader rewards followers for attaining common goals and objectives. The interaction between leaders and followers is positive reinforcement based on the exchange of desired items;

Contd.......(Transactional Leadership)

Management by exception where the leader intervenes only when mistakes are made or when problems occur; Laissez Faire where the leadership factor is absent or not available. Here decisions are delayed not made or happen by accident. There is no intervention of any kind.

Transformational leadership

A transformational leader goes beyond managing dayto-day operations and crafts strategies for taking his company, department or work team to the next level of performance and success. Transformational leadership styles focus on team-building, motivation and collaboration with employees at different levels of an organization to accomplish change for the better. Transformational leaders set goals and incentives to push their subordinates to higher performance levels, while providing opportunities for personal and professional growth for each employee. Transformational leadership is characterized by the following factors: Charisma - trusted and respected followers want to

Contd..........(Transformational Leadership)

Inspirational motivation - the leader uses symbols and appeals to the followers emotions to reinforce awareness and understanding in the pursuit of shared goals. Intellectual stimulation - followers are encouraged to question their old ways of doing things, their values and beliefs (including those of the leader and the organization) and to think of new ways to meet challenges. Individualized considerations - followers are treated according to their needs which may be raised to a higher level. They are helped to meet challenges and to become more effective in attaining goals.

Parliament
Parliaments vary in size, in how members are elected, how long they hold office, in their ways of relating to political parties and to constituents, in their relations with executive powers, in their responsibilities in lawmaking and budgeting, in how they oversee executive spending and activities, and in a dozen other ways.

The Role of Parliament

The role of parliament in government varies depending a number of factors. Four factors are imp: the type of political and electoral system, formal legislative powers, political will and political space, and technical capacity. The question of the role of parliament in government has become even more important to understand in the past decade as more and more countries are making a transition to democratic forms of government. These countries that are making the transition are faced with a number of new challenges as well as opportunities.

Functions of Parliament
There are three functions common to parliaments in democracies; 1. Representation, 2. Lawmaking 3. Oversight Parliaments represent the diversity of individuals and groups in society; as the supreme lawmaking institution in a nation they make the rules by which society is governed; and they are designed to oversee executive spending and performance.

Representation
chief executives, who represent entire nations, or bureaucrats and judges, whose responsibility it is to carry out and interpret the law impartially toward all citizens, legislators are responsible for representing the differences in society, and for bringing these differences into the policy-making arena.

Contd............(Representation)
Democratic parliaments are the most transparent and accessible of the three branches of government. Most parliaments open their plenary sessions to the public and to the press, and a growing number al-low citizens to attend committee meetings.

Law Making
Legislatures is to make laws, the rules that govern society. Effective legislatures not only represent the differences in society, they must also reach agreements on policy, taxing and spending with which groups and individuals generally agree. This is difficult under the best of circumstances, but it becomes more so in deeply divided societies and in poor nations with few re-sources to distribute.

Oversight
Oversight is one of the legislatures check and balance functions, through which it seeks to ensure that programs are carried out legally, effectively, and for the purposes for which they were intended. In practicing oversight, parliaments look back on government spending and activities to determine whether money was spent appropriately, and to ask value for money questions.

Contd.......(Oversight)
Legislative oversight tools include: The question period for ministers The use of public accounts committees Investigatory and departmental committees Auditors general

Factors influencing how legislatures carry out their functions

Political and electoral systems Political systems The degree of separation or unity between the legislative and executive branches is perhaps the major factor in determining legislative strength and independence. Specifically, the cleaner separation between executive and legislative powers in presidential systems encourages presidential legislatures to play more independent lawmaking and oversight roles than their parliamentary counterparts.

Parliamentary System
In parliamentary systems, the parliamentary majority party or coalition selects the chief executive from among its members. Cabinet members are also named from the parliamentary majority. This unity between the legislature and executive is a disincentive for the legislature to develop a strong committee system or deep policy expertise, which could be used to challenge the executive. A loss of support or vote of no confidence in the government results in both the government and parliament leaving office.

Presidential System
In presidential systems, by contrast, the president and legislature are elected separately, from different constituencies and often for different terms. The president selects the cabinet from outside parliament. Term lengths for presidents and parliaments are fixed and the fates of the legislature and president are not intertwined as they are in parliamentary systems. With the government thus divided, parliament has incentives to develop strong, effective committees and to play a competitive lawmaking role.

Electoral systems
MPs in every nation must win elections to get into, and to stay, in office. But the system through which they compete will affect the way they relate to constituents, and their independence once in office. MPs elected in single-member districts (also called pluralitymajority, or constituency-based), where constituents in a geographic area vote directly for a candidate and the candidate receiving the most votes wins, will likely be more independent and responsive to constituents than MPs elected through proportional representation systems.

Parliament of Pakistan
The Parliament of Pakistan, officially termed the MajliseShoora (Urdu: Majlis-e r); is the federal and supreme legislative body of Pakistan. It is a bicamera(Bicameralism is an essential and defining feature of the classical notion of Mixed Government)l federal legislature that consists of the Senate and the National Assembly. Article 50 of the Constitution provides that the Parliament of Pakistan shall consist of president and the two houses known as the National Assembly and the Senate.

National Assembly
Lower house of the parliament. The National Assembly has 342 seats, 272 of which are directly elected, 60 are reserved for women and a further 10 for religious minorities. Countrys sovereign legislative body. Five-year term on the basis of adult franchise and one-man one-vote. The tenure of the National Assembly also comes to an end if dissolved on the advice of the Prime Minister or by the president in his discretion under the Constitution. The National Assembly makes laws for the Federation in respect of the powers enumerated in the Federal Legislative list. Through its debates, adjournment motion, question hour and Standing Committees. Only the National Assembly, through its Public Accounts Committee scrutinizes public spending and exercises control of expenditure incurred by the government.

Contd....(National Assembly)

The National Assembly has an edge over the Senate by legislating exclusively on money matters. The bill relating to the Federal Legislative List can be originated in either house. If the house passed the bill through majority vote, it shall be transmitted to the other house. If the other house passes it without amendment, it shall be presented to the president for assent. If the bill, transmitted to the other house, is not passed within ninety days or rejected, it shall be considered in a joint sitting to be summoned by the president on the request of the house in which the bill was originated. If the bill is passed in the joint sitting, with or without amendments, by the votes of majority of the members of the two houses, it shall be presented to the president for assent. If the bill is presented to the president for assent, he shall assent to the bill in not later than ten days. If it is not a money bill, the president may return the bill to the Majlis-e-Shoora with a message requesting that the bill be reconsidered and that an amendment specified in the message be considered. The Majlis-e-Shoora shall reconsider the bill in a joint sitting. If the bill is passed again, with or without amendment, by vote of the majority of the members present and voting, it shall be presented to the president and the president shall give his assent within ten days.

Contd....(National Assembly)

If the Federal Government proclaims State of Emergency in any province, the power to legislate about that province is vested in the Parliament. But the bills passed by the Parliament during the State of Emergency, shall cease to be in force after the expiration of six months from the date Emergency is lifted. In the formation of the Cabinet the major portion (75%), goes to National Assembly while the rest (25%) are taken from the Senate. In this respect a resolution for a vote of no-confidence is moved by not less than 20% of the total membership of the National Assembly. the removal or impeachment of the president, not less than one-half of the total membership of either house may give in writing its intention to do so, to the Speaker National Assembly. if the resolution is passed by the votes of not less than two thirds of the total membership of the Parliament, the president shall cease to hold office. The eighteenth amendment revised Article142(d) of the constitution to explicitly limit the National Assemblys legislative authority to subjects in the federal list, unless specifically authorized by a provincial assembly under Article 144.

Senate

The main purpose for the creation of the Senate of Pakistan was to give equal representation to all the federating units since the membership of the National Assembly was based on the population of each province national cohesion. Punjab = 23 Sindh = 23 KPK = 23 Balochistan = 23 FATA = 8 Islamabad = 4 TOTAL = 104 . the Senate elections in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote through electoral colleges. The term of the members of the Senate is 6 years.

Committee system in Parliament

Standing Committees Special Committees Parliamentary Committees Non-Ministerial Standing Committees

Role of Parliament in Pakistans Democratic Transition

Strengthening the Legislature Parliamentary Committees Beyond broad constitutional and legal reforms, the best case for parliamentary supremacy rests in the day-to-day exercise of its legislative functions. The thirteenth National Assembly had marked another historic shift: in the role of parliamentary committees. Upon introduction in the house by a minister or a private member, all bills, except finance bills, are referred to a standing committee for consideration.

Bringing the Public to Parliament and Parliament to the Public

The ongoing democratic transition offers an opportunity to expand the publics knowledge of and input into the parliamentary process. Parliament should further open its proceedings not just to citizens scrutiny but also to their input. The National Assemblys rules allow committees to hold public hearings.

Contd.......

While Senate rules do not specifically mention such hearings, they authorise a committee to invite or summon any person or member having a special knowledge to give an expert opinion or give evidence in relation to any matter under its consideration. Indeed, the upper house has been much more proactive than the National Assembly in initiating such proceedings.

Shaping the Policy Debate

Parliamentarians have to reconcile their roles as representatives of their constituencies, parties and committees. As party representatives, they are legally obliged to follow its directives when voting on major legislation, such as the budget and constitutional amendments. Under the constitution, if they vote against party directives on a money bill, they are deemed to have defected from the party and are thus disqualified.

Public Expenditures

Although the parliaments power partly lies in its ability to vote on public expenditure, its control over such expenditure is limited. Money bills originate in the National Assembly, presented by the finance minister or, in his absence, any other minister authorised by the leader of the house. No other business can be transacted on the day the budget is introduced

Taming the bureaucracy

While the execution of policy is an executive prerogative, standing committees have the power to examine the expenditure and administration of ministries. This has political as well as economic implications. Historically the junior partner during decades of direct or indirect military interventions, the bureaucracy is an impediment to reform during democratic.

The Parliamentary Opposition

Political leaders across party lines have long acknowledged the potential value of shadow governments. Shadow ministers act as watchdogs, monitoring and holding cabinet ministers and ministries accountable. Shadow cabinets give opposition parliamentarians knowledge and expertise in their portfolios that will benefit their government if their party comes to power.

Contd......

The government, the National Assembly speaker and the opposition leader are the key drivers of parliamentary reform. They need to invigorate the new National Assemblys standing committees. Since any major legislation requires bipartisan support, committees in both houses should play key roles in achieving the necessary consensus on democratic reforms, as in the transitions first phase.

Parliaments Human and Technical Resources

If parliament is to exercise its oversight role effectively and table appropriate legislation, trained and qualified staff, equipped with up-todate technological tools, is essential. Poorly trained committee and secretariat staffs with limited research experience and without good access to computers and the internet cannot provide adequate support. The National Assembly, with 342 members, has only four research associates.

Federal Legislative List

Defence
External affairs and international treaties Immigration and citizenship

International and interprovincial trade

Nuclear Energy Airports, Aircrafts, air navigation, air and sea travel and shipment, lighthouses Patents, trade marks, copyrights Stock Exchange and futures markets. National Highways and Strategic Roads. Federal geological surveys and meteorological organizations Local Government in cantonment areas

Post and telecommunication Central Banking, currency, foreign exchange Corporate regulation, including banking and insurance Fishing beyond territorial waters Standards of weights and measures

Federal Legislative List (Federation/CCI(Fed-

Provincial ) Electricity
Minerals, oil and natural gas Railways Major ports Census

Provincial police operations beyond provincial boundaries Industrial Policy National planning and national economic coordination Coordination of scientific and technological research All regulatory authorities under a federal law Standards in higher education and research, scientific and technical institutions. Interprovincial matters and coordination.

Public debt

Federal Corporate, entities including the water and power Development authority and Pakistan industrial development corporation Legal, medical, and other professions

Federal Ministries/divisions Abolished after 18th amendment

1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Food and Agriculture Health Education Social Welfare and special Education Population Welfare Youth Affairs Environment Sports Culture Livestock and diary

Contd.....
11- Labour and Manpower 12- Minorities 13- Tourism 14- Women Development 15- Special Initiatives 16- Local Government and Rural Development 17- Zakat and Ushers

conclusion

It has taken 40 years, since the 1973 constitution established a federal parliamentary system of government, for Pakistan to witness a transition from one democratically elected parliament to another. This parliament must ensure the continuation and broadening of the democratic process. But, as the experiences of its immediate predecessor demonstrated, the threats to democracy have not subsided.