M.S.

Process Engineering and Mechanical Engineering

3
rd
Semester
INTRODUCTION
The fluid properties of concern in Gas Dynamics are;
1. Enthalpy
2. Internal Energy
3. Entropy
4. Temperature
5. Pressure
6. Density
All these properties can be referred to some reference state ??
What this reference state should be?
A unique state, can always be achieved, if the path is defined
In Fluid Analysis this is referred as
TOTAL OR STAGNATION STATE
Fluid properties referred to this state are
THE TOTAL OR STAGNATION PROPERTIES
INTRODUCTION, contd,-2
TOTAL OR STAGNATION STATE
A State Where the Flow Velocity Is Zero
OR
A State Attained By The Fluid When It Is Decelerated To Zero Velocity
OR
It Is The Constant Static State From Which The Fluid Can Be Accelerated To
The Actual State For A Given Flow.
Fig.1
Effect of Path
If Deceleration is done adiabatically then,
Stagnation Enthalpy and Internal Energy are
uniquely determined
If Deceleration is done isentropically then,
Stagnation Temperature, Pressure and Density
are uniquely determined
INTRODUCTION, contd.-3
Concept Of Reference State Is Independent Of
1. The Working Fluid
2. The process undergoing investigation
1. The actual flow process can involve
1. Work
2. Heat
3. Body Forces
4. Friction
3. This reference state exists for every point along actual flow path, hence
stagnation conditions are point functions
4. Stagnation properties do change from point to point. This change can be
due to friction, area change, heat transfer or work.
5. Hence stagnation properties can be related to these flow driving
potentials.
6. This reference state is in fact obtained from a pure imaginary or
hypothetical deceleration of fluid
STAGNATION ENTHALPY
Steady 1-D energy equation
in differential form
Assumptions;
1. Adiabatic flow= oQ=0
2. no work done= oW=0
3. No body forces=gdz=0
2 2 2
1 2
1 2
0
2 2 2
V V V
dh d h h
| |
+ = + = +
|
\ .
Let the fluid at condition one decelerates to
zero velocity at condition 2, then
( )
2
2 2
1
2 1
0
2 2
V
V V
H h h h
=
= + = +
Hence:
Stagnation enthalpy at any point = static enthalpy + K.E at that point
Eq.1
2
0
2
V
W Q dh d gdz o o
| |
+ + + =
|
\ .
STAGNATION TEMPERATURE
Temperature attained by the fluid when decelerated to zero velocity
Steady 1-D energy equation
(oQ, oW and gdz=0) in
differential form
2
0
2
V
dh d
| |
+ =
|
\ .
Fluid=Perfect Gas
2
0
2
p
V
c dt d
| |
+ =
|
\ .
For constant c
p
integration between points 1 and 2
2 2
1 2
2 2
V V
and
Energy due to directed motion of molecules / bulk motion
1 2 p p
c t and c t Energy due to random motion of molecules
2 2 2
1 2
1 2
constant
2 2 2
p p p
V V V
c t c t c t + = + = + =
Eq.2
STAGNATION TEMPERATURE, contd.-2
AN IMPORTANT INTERPRETATION OF ENERGY EQUATION
Energy equation (oQ, oW and gdz=0) shows interconvertibility of energies
associated with directed motion and random motion
Mach number is in fact ratio of these two energies
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2
constant
2 1 2 1 2 1
V a V a V a

+ = + = + =

Using C
p
= R/(-1) and a
2
= RT , Eq.2 becomes
OR
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2
1 1 1
1+ = 1+ = 1+ = const
2 2 2
a M a M a M
| | | | | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
OR
| | | | | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
2 2 2
1 1 2 2
1 1 1
1+ = 1+ = 1+ = const=T
2 2 2
t M t M t M
For adiabatic
flow process
involving a
perfect gas the
stagnation
temperature
remains
constant
STAGNATION TEMPERATURE, contd.-3
Similarly if the deceleration process is isentropic, the final temperature
attained by the gas (V = 0, M = 0)the corresponding unique
Stagnation Temperature
2 2 2
1 1 2 2
1 1 1
1+ = 1+ = 1+ = constant=T
2 2 2
t M t M t M
| | | | | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
Values of t/T vs M for s, given gas
tables undergoing isentropic
processes
For a Perfect Gas, h=h(t)
Eq.1
( )
2
2
2
V 0
1
= 1+
2
T t t M

=
| |
=
|
\ .
Eq.3
2
=
2
p p
H V
T t
c c
= + Eq.4
2 2 2
2
2
1 1 1
2 2 2
imp
p
V V V
t t M t
c a R


| |

A = = =
|
\ .
Compare eqs. 3 and 4
T=t+At
imp
= static temperature + impact temperature rise
STAGNATION TEMPERATURE, contd.-4
Hence, T is the Static Temperature that the gas will attain when
decelerated isentropically to zero speed
For Perfect Gases T=H/c
p
, Hence any deceleration process leads to a
unique H corresponding to a unique T. For other gases where t=f(h,s)
we need further restrictions of isentropic flow to define a unique
stagnation temperature
Relative change in stagnation temperature
Differentiate eq.3
( )

=
| |
=
|
\ .
2
2
2
V 0
1
= 1+
2
T t t M

= +

+
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
M
dT dt dM
T t M
M
An Example: A airplane flies at constant speed of 900km/hr at 10000 ft
altitude. The air bought to rest somewhere on fuselage. Find the
temperature of air in the stagnation region and impact temperature rise.
Assume
air
= 1.4
At 10000 m altitude t = 223.25 K so a=299.53 m/s M=0.8346.
So T = 457.8K and At
imp
= 31.1K
STAGNATION PRESSURE
It is the static pressure corresponding to the stagnation temperature
Stagnation temperature comes through isentropic process
Thus for perfect gas stagnation pressure can be calculated from
stagnation temperature through isentropic relations

| |
=
|
\ .
1
P T
p t
( )
( )
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
1 1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
M
M
M
p P
p
p p P
M

| |
+
|
\ .
= =

| |
+
|
\ .
Similarly
Isentropic relationship for a Perfect Gas
Hence stagnation pressure is
One can relate two static pressures in isentropic flow of perfect gas
2 2
2
2
2
1
1
2
dP dp M dM
P p M
M

= +

+
Value of
p/P vs M for s
In Gas Tables
1
2
1
1
2
P
M
p

| |
= +
|
\ .
STAGNATION DENSITY

o
the static density corresponding to stagnation state of the gas
=
o
P
RT
Mathematically
Where P and T are at
stagnation state

| |
= +
|
\ .
1
1
2
1
1
2
o
M
Values of
o
/ vs M for s
reported in Gas Tables
STAGNATION ACOUSTIC SPEED
a
o
stagnation acoustic speed corresponding to stagnation state of gas
=
2
o
a RT
Mathematically
Remains constant for adiabatic flow as T is constant
2
1
2
1
1
2
o
a t
M
a T


| |

| |
= = +
|
|
\ .
\ .

+ =

2 2 2
2 1 1
o
a V a
ENTROPY CHANGE
When a gas changes its state under static conditions
from t to T
Its entropy should change also
This change can be calculated by differentiating the equation of entropy
change for reversible process
( ) 1
ln ln
p
p p R c
t t
s c const c const
p p

( (
= + = +
( (

( ) 1
ln
p
t
ds c d
p


(

=
` (


)
Entropy of fluid in a static state = stagnation entropy corresponding
to that state
Hence static entropy change between two states =
stagnation entropy change between those two states
Fig.2
( ) 1
ln
o p
t
ds ds c d
p


(

= =
` (


)
ENTROPY CHANGE, contd. -2
Differential of the equation of entropy change for reversible process
( )
1
p
ds dT dP
c T P

=
If the perfect gas is also calorically perfect i.e c
p
constant
then integration yields
2 2
2 1
1 1
ln ln
p
T P
s s s c R
T P
| | | |
A = =
| |
\ . \ .
For steady adiabatic flow,
T is constant
2
2 1
1
ln
P
s s s R
P
| |
A = =
|
\ .
For steady adiabatic frictionless flow Both T and P are constant
You have isentropic flow, s = 0
Hence for any frictional flow, s > 0, so P
2
< P
1

( )
2
1
exp
P
s
R
P
A
=
CHARACTERISTIC SPEEDS
MAXIMUM ISENTROPIC SPEED
Isentropic Discharge Speed of a Perfect Gas
When it expands isentropically from an infinite reservoir
where V=0, p=P, t=T to static pressure p=p
/

1 2
1
2
1
1
RT p
V
P

(
'
| |
' =
( `
|

\ .
(


)
V
/
max
when p
/
0
1 2 1 2
2 2
1 1
o
RT
V a

' = =
` `

) )
This speed corresponds to the complete transformation of the KE
associated with the random motion of molecules into directed KE
At this complete conversion of KE the static temperature of gas would be
zero. A real gas would in fact liquefy before that speed is attained
Concept applies only to the flow of gas, not to the motion of a body in gas.
Bodies motion in gas is limited by the thrust available. For a body at rest and
gas moving, the gas cannot attain speed more than V
/

Useful relation between V
/
max
, V and a

'
+ =

2 2 2
max
2 1 2
V V a
CHARACTERISTIC SPEEDS, contd. -2
CRITICAL SPEED OF SOUND
One of the forms of energy equation
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2
1 1 1
1+ = 1+ = 1+ = const
2 2 2
a M a M a M
| | | | | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
Isentropic expansion of a gas
Its speed increases
Its temperature decreases
Somewhere V
2
=a
2

At 2 M
2
=1
This a
2
is called the critical speed of sound, a
*

+ | |
|
\ .
2
2 2
1 1
*
1+ =
2 2
a M a
( )
( )

+
+

2
2 2
*
1
=
2 1 2 1
a
V a ( )
+ 2
2
1
*
=
2
o
a a
Thermodynamic Properties and Critical Speed
All the required thermodynamic properties at a
*
,
can be found

| |
=
|
+
\ .
*
2
T 1
t
Similarly,
( ) ( )

| | | |
= =
| |
+
\ . \ .
-1 -1 * *
2
1
p t
P T
( )

| | | |
= =
| |
+
\ . \ .
1
1
-1 * *
2
1
o
p
P
Values of ratios of t
*
/T, p
*
/P,
*
/

as functions of
Put t = t
*

| |
=
|
+
\ .
*
2
T
1
t
For air,
p
*
/P = 0.5283
t
*
/T = 0.833

*
/
o
=0.6339
a
*
/a
o
= 0.9129
( )
2
2
2
V 0
1
= 1+
2
T t t M

=
| |
=
|
\ .
Faheem
Aleem
Thermodynamic Properties and Critical Speed, contd.
Critical speed of sound & stagnation acoustic speed can be related
When a gas is expanded isentropically, its discharge speed is;
Substitute for stagnation acoustic speed
' 2 *2
max
1
1
V a

+
=

Similarly one can relate the Mach Number as M

*
= V/a
*

M* is called the dimensionless velocity, a flow characteristic
( )
( )
*2
2
*2 2
2
*2
2
1
1
1
2 1
1
1
M
M
M or M
M
M

+
+
= =

+

+
An interesting thing;
1. M0, M
*
0
2. M1, M* 1
3. M, M* finite value
1
2
*
1
lim
1
M
M

| | +
=
|

\ .
Similarly one can relate the stagnation property ratios in terms of M*
2
2
max
1
2
o
a V

= '

Different Forms of Continuity eq. for Perfect Gas

Equation of continuity in different forms, if R & are constant
constant m AV pAV Rt = = =
( )
1 2 1 2
1 2
=ApM =constant
Rt Rt
pAV
m pAV Rt
Rt

| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
Substituting for t and p in terms of T and P
1 2
2
1
ApM 1 =constant
RT 2
m M
(
| |
= +
|
(
\ .

( ) ( ) 1 2 - 1 2 1
2
1
APM 1 =constant
RT 2
m M


+

| | | |
= +
| |
\ . \ .
( ) ( ) 1 2 1
2
APM T
=constant
1
1
2
m
M

+
=

| |
+
|
\ .
If a perfect gas is expanded isentropically then it will attain critical
speed while flowing through an area A
*
called critical throat area
Critical Flow Area
Writing continuity equation for an infinite reservoir and critical area
* * *
constant m AV A a = = =
* * * *
*
Rt A a
A V V


= =
Writing
*
, t
*
in terms of local and stagnation property ratios
( ) ( )
( )
1
2
2
1 1
*
1
2
1 1
for isentropic flow
2
1
A
A
p p
P P

| |

|
+
\ .
=
`
(
| | | |
+
(
| |

\ . \ .
(

)
Critical Flow Area, contd. - 2
Graphical Representation of this
equation
Critical area ratio as a
function of pressure ratio
for = 1.4
( ) ( ) 1 2 1
2
*
1 2 1
1
1 2
A
M
A M

+
(
| |
| |
= +
( | |
+
\ .
\ .

Critical area ratio as a
function of M reported in gas
tables for isentropic flow
Critical Flow Area, contd. - 3
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
+
*
) 1 ( 2 / ) 1 (
2 / 1
/
1
1
2
A A RT
PA m

At critical conditions, Where M = 1

) 1 ( 2 / ) 1 (
2 / 1
* *
1
2
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
=

RT
PA m
o
a
PA
RT
PA
m
*
) 1 ( 2 / ) 1 (
*
*
1
2 I
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
+

Where
) 1 ( 2 / ) 1 (
1
2
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
I

Effect of Compressibility on the Mass Flow Rate

Change in the density of the fluid affects the mass flow rate of the fluid
Mass flux is given as
There exist two extreme situations
1. p
0
/ P = 1
2. p
0
/ P = 0
Mass flux is zero for both extremes
It has a maximum value for a particular p/P ratio call critical pressure
ratio
What is the condition for that???
Condition for Maximum Isentropic Mass Flow Rate
For a given mass flow rate maximum
value of mass flux occurs at throat
where area is minimum
Differentiating w.r.t. x logarithmically
For throat dA/dx = 0
Hence
Now
Neglecting body forces
and dividing by dx
comparing