Structural Analysis 7

th
Edition in SI Units
Russell C. Hibbeler
Chapter 1:
Types of Structures and Loads
Introduction
Structures refer to a system of connected parts
used to support a load

Factors to consider:
Safety
Esthetics
Serviceability
Economic & environmental constraints

2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
Classification of Structures
Structural elements
Tie rods
Beams
Columns

Types of structures
Trusses
Cables & Arches
Surface Structures
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
Loads
Loads

Structural forms

Elements carrying primary loads

Various supporting members

Foundation
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
Design loading for a structure is often specified in
codes
General building codes
Design codes
Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
Types of load
Dead loads
Weights of various structural members
Weights of any objects that are attached to the
structure
Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
The floor beam is used to support the 1.83m width of lightweight
plain concrete slab having a thickness of 102mm. The slab serves
as a portion of the ceiling for the floor below & its bottom coated
with plaster. A 2.44m high, 305mm thick lightweight solid
concrete block wall is directly over the top flange of the beam.
Determine the loading on the beam measured per m length of the
beam.
Example 1.1
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
Using the data provided from the table,
Solution
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
m kN Total
m kN m m m kN
m kN m m kN
m kN m mm mm m kN
/ 50 . 15 26 . 12 44 . 0 80 . 2
/ 26 . 12 ) 305 . 0 )( 44 . 2 )( / 5 . 16 ( : block wall
/ 44 . 0 ) 83 . 1 )( / 24 . 0 ( : ceiling plaster
/ 80 . 2 ) 83 . 1 )( 102 )( . / 015 . 0 ( : slab concrete
3
2
2
= + + =
=
=
=
Live loads
Varies in magnitude & location
Building loads
Depends on the purpose for which the building is
designed
These loadings are generally tabulated in local, state
or national code
Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
Live loads
Building Loads
Uniform, concentrated loads
Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
2
2
2
m in area tributary
4 column interior For factor. element load live
member by the supported area of load/m live design unreduced
member by the supported area of load/m live design reduced
where
units) (SI
57 . 4
25 . 0
=
= =
=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
T
LL LL
o
T LL
o
A
K K
L
L
A K
L L
Live loads
Building Loads
Uniform, concentrated loads
Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
roof. or garage assembly, public for used structures for or
/ 79 . 4 loads for allowed is reduction No
floor one than more supporting members for 4 . 0
floor one supporting members for 5 . 0
2
m kN
L L
L L
o
o
>
>
>
A 2-storey office building has interior columns that are spaced
6.71m apart in 2 perpendicular directions. If the (flat) roof loading
is 0.96kN/m
2
, determine the reduced live load supported by a
typical interior column located at ground level.
Example 1.2
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
Solution
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
kN kN kN F F F
kN m m kN F
m kN L
m m m A K m kN L
kN m m kN FR
m m m A
F R
F
T LL o
T
0 . 107 9 . 63 1 . 43
9 . 63 ) 0 . 45 )( / 42 . 1 (
50% 59.1% 100% (1.42/2.4) is reduction load The
/ 1.42
180
57 . 4
25 . 0 4 . 2
2 . 37 180 ) 0 . 45 ( 4 4 , 4 , / 4 . 2
floor, second For
1 . 43 ) 0 . 45 )( / 96 . 0 (
0 . 45 ) 71 . 6 )( 71 . 6 (
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2
= + = + =
= =
> =
= |
.
|

\
|
+ =
> = = = =
= =
= =
Highway Bridge loads
Primary live loads are those due to traffic
Specifications for truck loadings are reported in
AASHTO
For 2-axle truck, these loads are designated with H
followed by the weight of truck in tons and another
no. gives the year of the specifications that the load
was reported
Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
Railway Bridge loads
Loadings are specified in AREA
A modern train having a 320kN (72k) loading on the
driving axle of the engine is designated as an E-72
loading
Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
Impact loads
Due to moving vehicles
The % increase of the live loads due to impact is
called the impact factor, I
Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
load live the to subjected is that m in span the of length
3 . 0
1 . 38
24 . 15
=
<
+
=
L
L
I
Wind loads
Kinetic energy of the wind is converted into potential
energy of pressure when structures block the flow of
wind
Effects of wind depends on density & flow of air,
angle of incidence, shape & stiffness of the structure
& roughness of surface
For design, wind loadings can be treated as static or
dynamic approach
Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
Wind loads
Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
1 alone, acting For wind
loads. of n combinatio to subjected is structure the only when used is It
wind. the of direction for the accounts t factor tha a
1 ground flat For s. escarpment % hills to due increases speed for wind accounts t factor tha a
1.5. Table See
terrain. ground upon the depends and height of function A t. coefficien exposure pressure velocity the
occupancy. building the of nature upon the depends t factor tha importance the
map. wind a from obtained are Values
period. recurrence 50year a during ground the above 10m measured wind of gust 3s a of m/s in velocity
where
)
2
/ (
2
613 . 0
=
=
= =
=
=
=
=
d
K
d
K
zt
K
zt
K
z
K
I
V
m N I V
d
K
zt
K
z
K
z
q
Wind loads
Once q
z
is obtained, the design pressure can be
obtained from a list of relevant equations
Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
) (
pi h p
GC q qGC p =
18 . 0 building, enclosed fully For
building. in the openings of type
upon the depends t which coefficien pressure internal the
surface. the from away acting pressure indicate values Negative
t coefficien pressure roof or wall
0.85 G structure, rigid For
exposure. on depending factor, effect gust - wind a
roof the of height mean , h z where wall leeward for the
ground the above z height at wall windward for the
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
pi
pi
p
h
z
GC
GC
C
G
q
q q
The enclosed building is used for agricultural purposes and is
located outside of Chicago, Illinois on flat terrain. When the wind
is directed as shown, determine the design wind pressure acting
on the roof and sides of the building using the ASCE 7-02
Specifications.
Example 1.3
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
Solution
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
m h
h
K I V K K K q
z d zt z z
63 . 9 2 / 03 . 4 62 . 7
03 . 4 10 tan 6 . 22 '
3 . 853 613 . 0
1 K is loading Wind
1 K in, flat terra For
0.87 I 40m/s, V speed, wind Basic
0
2
d
zt
= + =
= =
= =
=
=
= =
Solution
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
152 85 . 0 ) 18 . 0 ( 845 ) 85 . 0 (
) (
18 . 0 ) ( , 85 . 0
845 990 0 3 853 990 0
63 9 2 12 04 1 1 9 2 12 98 0 04 1
h z for
ion interpolat linear by determined was K of value the Note
below. table in the listed are profile pressure of
values calculated 1.5, Table in K of values Using
2
z
z

p p
pi h p
pi
h h
h
qC C q
GC q qGC p
GC G
N/m ) . ( . , q . K
) . - . )/( -K . ( ) . - . )/( . - . (
= =
=
= =
= = =
=
=
Solution
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
z (m) K
z
Q
z
(N/m
2
)
0 4.6 0.85 733
6.1 0.90 776
7.6 0.94 814
h = 9.6 0.990 856
Solution
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
2 2
2 2
6 . 7
2 2
1 . 6
2 2
6 . 4 0
/ 211 / 517
5 . 0 1, 5.72 2(22.86)/4
wall Leeward
/ 709 / 400
/ 680 / 374
/ 651 / 344
8 . 0 , all For
z height with varies Pressure
wall Windward
m N or m N p
C L/B
m N or m N p
m N or m N p
m N or m N p
C L/B
p
p
=
= = =
=
=
=
=

Solution
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
2 2
2 2
/ 356 / 666
and 7 . 0 that so
, 25 . 0 211 . 0 86 . 22 / 63 . 9 Here
roofs Windward
/ 356 / 666
7 . 0 , of values all For
walls Side
m N or m N p
q q C
h/L
m N or m N p
C L/B
h p
p
=
= =
< = =
=
=
Solution
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
2 2
/ 65 / 356
and 3 . 0 case, In this
roofs Leeward
m N or m N p
q q C
h p
=
= =
Wind loads
If the structure represents an above-ground sign, the
wind will produce a resultant force on the face of the
sign which is determined from:
Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
f f z
A GC q F =
wind the into projected sign the of face the of area the
1.6 Table in listed are Values
N. dimension small the sign to the of M dimension large
the of ratio upon the depends t which coefficien force a
previously defined factor t coefficien gust - wind the
of centroid
the of z height at the evaluated pressure velocity the
where
=
=
=
=
f
f
f
z
A
C
G
A
q
Snow loads
Design loadings depend on buildings general shape
& roof geometry, wind exposure, location and its
importance
Snow loads are determined from a zone map
reporting 50-year recurrence interval
Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
Snow loads
For flat roof (slope < 5%):

Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
hospital for 1.2 and facilities storage & e agricultur for 0.8 e.g, For
occupancy. to relates it as factor importance the
1.0. then structure,
heated normally a supporting is roof the if whereas 1.2,
freezing below kept structure unheated For building. within the
re temperatu average the to refers ch factor whi thermal a
1.3
city large a of centre in the located & sheltered is roof the If
0.8. area ed unobstruct an in roof exposed fully A
terrain. upon the depending factor exposure an
where
1.5 eqn 7 . 0
= =
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
I I
I
t
C
t
C
t
C
e
C
e
C
e
C
g t e f
Ip C C p
Snow loads
Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
) / 96 . 0 ( use
, / 96 . 0 If
or 1.5 eqn from computed either
, for lue largest va the use
, / 96 . 0 If
2
2
2
m kN I p
m kN p
Ip p
p
m kN p
f
g
g f
f
g
=
>
=
s
The unheated storage facility is located on flat open terrain near
Cario, Illinois where the ground snow load is 0.72kN/m
2.

Determine the design snow load on the roof.
Example 1.4
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
Solution
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
2
2
2 2
2
/ 58 . 0
choose , comparison By
/ 58 . 0 ) 72 . 0 )( 8 . 0 (
/ 96 . 0 / 72 . 0 Since
/ 39 . 0 ) 72 . 0 )( 8 . 0 )( 2 . 1 )( 8 . 0 ( 7 . 0
7 . 0
8 . 0 , 2 . 1 , 8 . 0
1.5 eqn use flat, is roof the Since
m kN p
m kN Ip p
m kN m kN p
m kN p
Ip C C p
I C C
f
g f
g
f
g t e f
t e
=
= = =
< =
= =
=
= = =
Earthquake loads
Earthquake produce loadings through its interaction
with the ground & its response characteristics
Their magnitude depends on amount & type of
ground acceleration, mass & stiffness of structure
Top block is the lumped mass of the roof
Middle block is the lumped
stiffness of all the buildings columns
During earthquake, the ground
vibrates both horizontally & vertically

Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
Earthquake loads
Horizontal accel -> shear forces in the column
If the column is stiff & the block has a small mass,
the period of vibration of the block will be short, the
block will acceleration with the same motion as the
ground & undergo slight relative displacements
If the column is very flexible & the block has a large
mass, induced motion will cause small accelerations
of the block & large relative displacement
Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
Earthquake loads
The effects of a structures response can be
determined & represented as an earthquake
response spectrum
For small structure, static analysis is satisfactory
Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

/ I R
S
C
DS
s
=

building the of use on the depends t factor tha importance
structure the of ductility upon the depends t factor tha on modificati response
vibration of periods short for accel response spectral
=
=
=
I
R
S
DS
Hydrostatic & Soil Pressure
The pressure developed by these loadings when the
structures are used to retain water or soil or granular
materials
E.g. tanks, dams, ships, bulkheads & retaining walls
Other natural loads
Effect of blast
Temperature changes
Differential settlement of foundation
Loads
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
Material uncertainties occur due to
variability in material properties
residual stress in materials
intended measurements being different from
fabricated sizes
material corrosion or decay
Many types of loads can occur simultaneously on a
structure
Structural Design
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
In working-stress design, the computed elastic
stress in the material must not exceed the
allowable stress along with the following typical
load combinations as specified by the ASCE 7-02
Standard
Dead load
0.6 (dead load) + wind load
0.6 (dead load) + 0.7(earthquake load)
Structural Design
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads
Ultimate strength design is based on designing the
ultimate strength of critical sections
This method uses load factors to the loads or
combination of loads
1.4 (Dead load)
1.2 (dead load) + 1.6 (live load) + 0.5 (snow load)
1.2 (dead load) + 1.5(earthquake load)+ 0.5 (live load)
Structural Design
2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Structural Analysis 7
th
Edition
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads