CGE 461 Introduction To Petroleum Technology
CGE 461 Introduction To Petroleum Technology
CGE 461 Introduction To Petroleum Technology
INTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM
TECHNOLOGY
BY:
TENGKU AMRAN TENGKU MOHD
Outline
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able
to:
Describe the origin, generation, migration and
accumulation of petroleum.
Discuss the five main controls/ elements on
petroleum accumulation.
Overview
Overview
Origin of Petroleum
Primary theory (generation of HC by organic evolution)
Plants and
animals die
Organic
sedimentation
occur (primarily in
a water
environment)
Organic debris
deposited together
with other materials
(through
lithification)
Depth,Temp +
Geologic time
passes + chemical
action (Organic
debris
HC)
Sediments
move
deeper into
the earth
Sedimentation
continue with
increasing
overburden
pressure
Origin of Petroleum
Conversion of the organic material is called
Catagenesis(assisted by pressure caused by burial,
temperature and thermal alteration and degradation.
The organic origin of petroleum is strongly suggested by
the great quantities of organic compounds continuously
being deposited in sedimentary basins around the world.
Plant and animals remains contain abundant carbon and
hydrogen.
Variations in the compositions of different crude oils (due
to chemical variation in the composition of organic
material)
Organic Theory
From transformation of biomatter.
The biogenic origin of petroleum is widely accepted on the
basis of geochemical studies.
In low-energy environment (shallow marine environment),
fine-grained sediments are slowly deposited.
Oxygen depletion takes place lead to anaerobic condition.
Anaerobic bacteria reduce the organic compound by the
removal of oxygen from molecules BUT did not attack
C-C bond of HC.
This condition highly preserve the organic matter.
In high-energy environment (aerobic) the bacteria
decompose organic matter to CO2 and H2O.
Inorganic Theories
Cosmic sources: HCs found in meteorites.
Consolidation of H and C during earth cooling.
Reaction of metal carbides in the earth (by
Mendeleve,1902 and Porfirev, 1974) :
iron carbide react with percolating water to
form methane and other oil hydrocarbons.
There is little evidence for the existence of
iron carbide in the mantle.
Petroleum System
Petroleum System
The essential elements and processes and all geneticallyrelated hydrocarbons that occur in petroleum occurrences
and accumulations whose provenance is a single pod of
active source rock.
Elements
Processes
Source Rock
Migration Route
Reservoir Rock
Trap
Seal
Generation
Maturation
Migration
Accumulation
Retention
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Arrangement of oil and gas source rocks, a reservoir, a seal, and a trap in a
way that has allowed the natural accumulation of oil and gas.
Petroleum System
Petroleum system
1. Source Rock
Source rock is defined as rock formed through
lithification, from original sediments containing
organic debris.
A source rock is a rock that is capable of producing
hydrocarbons.
1. Source Rock
Source rocks are:
sedimentary rocks that were deposited in very quiet
water (still swamps on land, shallow quiet marine bays,
or in deep submarine settings)
Organically rich, black-colored shales deposited
in a quiet marine, oxygen depleted environment
are considered to be the best source rocks.
comprised of very small mineral fragments. In
between the mineral fragments, are the remains of
organic material, usually algae, small wood fragments,
or pieces of the soft parts of land plants (Figure).
1. Source Rock
1. Source Rock
ORGANIC MATERIALS
If
contains
Mostly wood
fragment
Mostly algae
or soft parts of
land plants
It will
form
It will
form
Natural gas
Oil
Natural gas
1. Source Rock
Petroleum/Oil: complex
mixture of naturally
occurring organic
compounds.
Organic rich sediments
are buried in a basin.
Through time, under
pressure and temperature
associated with deep
burial, organics undergo
physical and chemical
changes, eventually
forming oil.
Fossil fuel formation
methane
Temperature
Humic
Substances
oil
Kerogen
60
120
Oil window
Thermally
Matured
Organic
Matter
Wet Gas
Dry Gas
150
Graphite
Dead Carbon
20
KEROGEN FORMATION
Processes
DIAGENESIS
CATAGENESIS
METAGENESIS
21
DIAGENESIS
Occurs in the shallow subsurface near normal
temperature & pressure
CO2
Methane
H2O
Organic
Material
Humic
Substances
Kerogen
Net result is
reduction of its oxygen content;
H:C ratio unaltered
22
CATAGENESIS
Occurs in the deeper subsurface as temperature
& pressure increase
Oil
Gas
Kerogen
Matured
Organic
Materials
Net result is
the reduction of its H:C ratio
no significant change in oxygen:carbon ratio
23
METAGENESIS
Occurs in the deeper subsurface at temperature
& pressure verging on metamorphism
Dry gas
Last HC released
Matured
Organic
Materials
Graphite
Net result is
the H:C declines until only carbon left (graphite)
Porosity & permeability are now negligible
24
25
2. Migration
After petroleum has been generated, it must
migrate out of the source rock and into the trap
where it will accumulate and form an oil or gas
field.
Some oil forms close to the reservoir and can
reach it vertically but in many cases oil
migrates tens to hundreds of kilometers before
coming to rest in a reservoir.
27
2. Migration
Petroleum migrates as a mixture of oil, gas and
water through water-saturated rocks.
In the reservoir these phases separate
according to density with the most dense water
at the bottom, least dense gas on top and oil
occur in between.
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2. Migration
Primary migration is the process by which petroleum
moves from source rock to carrier bed driven by
pressure build-up caused by HC generation.
Secondary migration is the migration from the source
kitchen to the reservoir trap through the carrier
gravity driven process (buoyancy) controlled by poreentry networks.
The petroleum had to migrate through rocks with enough
permeability and porosity to allow the fluids to flow to the
surface.
Migration Route avenues in rock through which oil
and gas moves from source rock to trap
2. Migration
3. Reservoir Rock
POROUS AND
PERMEABLE
RESERVOIR
ROCK
Most major source
rocks are shales and
biogenic limestones.
They contain
interconnected
passageways of
microscopic pores or
holes that occupy the
areas between the
mineral grains of the
rock
3. Reservoir Rock
The term reservoir implies storage.
Reservoir rock is rock where hydrocarbons are stored and
from which they can be produced.
They are characterized by
high porosity and
effective permeability.
An example of a good reservoir rock is sandstone
Once oil and gas enter the reservoir rock, they are
relatively free to move. Most reservoir rocks are initially
saturated with saline groundwater.
Because oil and gas are less dense than the ground water,
they rise upward through the water-saturated pore spaces
until they meet a barrier of impermeable rock SEAL
High Permeability
Permeability is a measure of
the degree to which the pore
spaces are interconnected,
and the size of the interconnections.
33
POROSITY
Vv
porosity( )
VT
Two types
100%
Primary Porosity
Original porosity (between grains)
Secondary Porosity
Chemical Leaching
Fractures
Vuggy
34
Effective Porosity
is the fraction of the porosity that is available
for transporting fluid (excludes fraction of
pores too small to hold fluid, or those that are
not inter-connected.
Can be measured in the lab directly by saturating a
dried sample of known volume and measuring water
uptake in a sealed chamber over time
For unconsolidated coarse- grained sediments there is
no significant difference
35
38
39
40
41
POROSITY ??
42
Permeability
Permeability needs to be measured, either
directly (using Darcy's law) or through estimation
using empirically derived formulas.
43
5. Traps
In order to prevent the HC rising
to the surface and escaping they
must be caught in a confined
space, termed a trap.
A trap is a place where oil and
gas accumulates.
Porous rock covered by
impermeable rock
Example
Structural Traps
Folds (Anticline)
Faults
Stratigraphic Traps
Pinch out
Unconformity
4. Seal
A rock through which oil
and gas cannot move
effectively (such as
mudstone, claystone or
salt) and which blocks
the upwards migration
of oil and gas.
Relatively impermeable.
Seal at surface
4. Seal
46
4. Seal
47
Siltstone
K (m/day)
10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105
Pure
Clay
Sandy
Clay
Silt
Fine
Sand
F Gravel
Gravels
Overview
Structural Geology
1. Faults
A fault is a more or less planar surface or
zone, across which the rocks on either side
have been moved by shear displacement(i.e.
displacement parallel to the fault surface)
Faults can be sharp and can be wide zone
Majority are not vertical (most are inclined)
1. Faults
DIP of the fault plane The angle down from
horizontal.
STRIKE of the fault plane The compass direction of
the horizontal line lying in the fault.
VERTICAL FAULT has a dip of 90o .
NON-VERTICAL FAULT has dip that range from
very shallow (10-30o) to moderate (40-60o) to steep
(70-89o)
1. Faults
Each faults separates the entire rock mass into
two fault-blocks.
Non-vertical faults the fault-block lying
below the fault plane is called footwall, and
the block above the fault is called the
hangingwall (Figure)
1. Faults
1. Faults
Slip Direction
1.
The names of
Faults
faults are
defined by the
sense of
DIP SLIP FAULTS
movement
(Fault slip parallel to the dip direction)
NORMAL FAULTS
REVERSE FAULTS
1. Faults
NORMAL FAULT
Normal Fault
1. Faults
Normal Fault
1. Faults
REVERSE FAULT
Reverse Fault
1. Faults
STRIKE SLIP FAULT
Two layers of rock are shifted horizontally or
parallel to the fault plane.
2. Fold
The term fold does not imply any particular
scale.(can apply to structures of any size.
If a fold makes the trap for a petroleum
reservoir, the size of the fold must be quite
large (on the order of km).
Fold can be very small too.
There are three main types of folds:
Anticlines
Synclines
Monoclines
2. Fold
Feature where rock layers or other markers
become non-planar due to deformation
2. Fold
Anticlines
Synclines
2. Folds
Monoclines
3. Diapirs
Petroleum Traps
Petroleum traps are any combination of physical factors
that promote the accumulation and retention of
petroleum in one location.
FOLDING
DEPOSITION
PIERCEMENT
FAULTING
EROSION
Petroleum Traps
A trap requires three elements:
a porous reservoir rock to accumulate the oil and
gas - typically sandstones, limestones and dolomites.
an overlying impermeable rock to prevent the oil
and gas from escaping
a source for the oil and gas, typically black waxy
shales.
There are several types of traps:
Structural Traps
Stratigraphic Traps
Hydrodynamic Traps
Combination Traps
1. Structural Traps
Structural traps are formed:
where the space for petroleum is limited by
a structural feature
when the reservoir rock and overlying seal
have been deformed by folding or faulting.
the deformation of rock strata within the
earths crust
1. Structural Traps
Structural Traps
73
SALT DOME
FAULT TRAP
Anticlinal Trap
An anticline is an example of rocks which were previously
flat, but have been bent into an arch. Oil that finds its way
into a reservoir rock that has been bent into an arch will
flow to the crest of the arch, and get stuck (provided, of
course, that there is a trap rock above the arch to seal
the oil in place).
Anticlinal trap
Anticlinal Trap
The rock layers in an
anticlinal trap were
originally laid down
horizontally then folded
upward into an arch or
dome.
Later, hydrocarbons migrate
into the porous and
permeable reservoir rock.
A cap or seal (impermeable
layer of rock) is required to
permit the accumulation
of the hydrocarbons
Anticlinal traps
Anticlinal Trap
Anticlinal traps
80
Fault Trap
Fault traps
Sealing Faults
82
2. Stratigraphic Traps
Stratigraphic traps are formed:
when the reservoir rock is deposited as a
discontinuous layer. Seals are deposited
beside and on top of the reservoir.
by the limits of the reservoir rock itself, without any
structural control.
as a result of differences or variations between or
within stratified rock layers, creating a change or loss
of permeability from one area to another. These traps
do not occur as a result of movement of the strata.
e.g. Reef, Lenticular, Pinch out, Unconformity
2. Stratigraphic Traps
REEF
PINCH OUT
LENTICULAR
UNCONFORMITY
CONT
Here is an example of a reef trap.
The diagram shows a cross-section
through the reservoir and overlying
rocks.
Stratigraphic traps
Reef
Porous ancient coral
reefs grew in the warm
seas.
They now provide prolific
oil and gas reservoirs.
Often overlying porous
rock layers are "draped,"
or folded over the reefs
and form separate traps.
Overlying impermeable
shales act as seals to the
reservoirs.
Reef
Lenticular
Lenticular trap A porous area
surrounded by non-porous strata.
They may be formed from ancient buried
river sand bars, beaches, etc.
Lenticular traps
Pinch-Out
Pinch-out or
lateral graded
trap A trap
created by lateral
differential
deposition when
the environmental
deposition changes
up-dip.
Pinch-out or lateral graded traps
Cont
This occurs where the
porous limestone
reservoir loses its
porosity and becomes
impermeable
limestone, or the
porous sandstone
reservoir simply thins
and pinches out.
Overlying
impermeable rocks
act as seals.
Stratigraphic Pinch-out
Uncomformity
A stratigraphic trap formed by
folding, uplift, and erosion of porous
strata, followed by the deposition of
later beds which can act as a seal for
oil, gas, or water.
Cont
Unconformity
3. Hydrodynamic Traps
3. Hydrodynamic Traps
3. Hydrodynamic Traps
4. Combination Traps
Combination traps result from two or more of the
basic trapping mechanisms. (structural,
stratigraphic, and hydrodynamic ).
4. Combination Traps
4. Combination Traps
4. Combination Traps
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