Navigation I I
Navigation I I
Navigation I I
(VOR)
Ground station oriented to magnetic
north, transmitting directional information
to aircraft
Benefits
More accurate, precise flying
Reliable
Not susceptible to interference
Voice Capable
Errors/Negatives
Costly to maintain
Line-of-sight
VOR
Omnidirectional
reference signal
Directional signal from
antenna rotating @
1800 rpm
Receiver uses phase
discrimination
Navigation in polar
Distance Measuring
coordinates (rho-theta)
Equipment (DME) & often
Tacan are colocated with
VOR
VOR Capabilities
VHF 108.0-117.95mhz
Line of sight
1 LOP at a time
2 receivers give 2 LOPs (fix)
VOR + DME = LOP & Arc (fix)
VOR Types
High
1,000 14,500; 40NM
14,500 18,000; 100NM
18,000 45,000; 130NM
45,000 60,000; 100NM
Low
1,000 18,000; 40NM
Terminal
1,000 12,000; 25NM
* All altitudes AGL
VOR Types
Magnetic
North
045
315
135
270
090
135
225
180
Omni
bearing
selector
VHF Omnirange
VHF Omnirange
VHF Omnirange
Switching Radials
During station passage, turn OBS to
new course to fly
Uses
Intersections/Fixes
IAP
Groundspeed
Electronic Navigation
Loran
GPS
Inertial
Celestial
GPS
System of 24 satellites, 4/5 of which are in
view at all times
Receiver uses 4 of these to determine
position of aircraft
Each satellite transmits code, which
contains satellite position and GPS time
Receiver, knowing how fast signal was
sent and at what time, calculates position
GPS Glossary
RAIM Receiver Autonomous Integrity
Monitoring
Determines if satellites are providing correct data
LOP 1 Sphere
Single
range can
lie anywhere
on a sphere
R1
LOP 2 Spheres
Two ranges
will intersect
on a line,
defined by the
intersection of
two spheres
LOP 3 Spheres
Three spheres
intersect at a
point
Three ranges
needed to
resolve
lat/long/altitude
GPS Uses
Civilian Uses
Marine Navigation
Air Navigation
Surveying
Search and Rescue
Collision avoidance
Agriculture
Military Uses
Marine Navigation
Air Navigation
Rendezvous
Close Air Support
Mine Warfare
Unmanned Aerial
Vehicles (UAVs)
Cannot be jammed
Gets better with use
Applies a calibration correction
after each flight
Primitive Accelerometer
M
No Acceleration
0
Acceleration
M
0
F = kx = ma
a = kx/m
Electronic (strapdown)
Few moving parts
Smaller
Cheaper
Mechanical
Electronic Navigation
Loran
GPS
Inertial
Celestial
Celestial Navigation
Advantages
No power required
Self contained
Cannot be jammed
Available everywhere
Disadvantages
Dusk & dawn only
Clear weather only
Slow for aircraft
Needs the art of nav.
Navigators skill
Requires computation
At least data entry
Circle of Equal
Altitude
DeRemer & McLean Global Navigation
Types of Errors
Error increases with distance
VOR/DME, ADF
Reliability Concerns
GPS, Loran, Celestial
Human error
4. Celestial
5. Electronic Navigation
Loran
GPS
Inertial