Voltage Transformers
Voltage Transformers
Voltage Transformers
PT
CT
Relay
Circuit Breaker
Fuse
Fault
Fault Transducer Relay
Transducer Relay
Occur
Occur
Circuit
Circuit
Breaker
Breaker
Fault
Fault
Clear
Clear
VT and CT Schematic
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
Two types of voltage transformer are used for protective-relaying
purposes, as follows:
(1) the "instrument potential transformer," hereafter to be called
simply "potential transformer," and
ACCURACY OF
POTENTIALTRANSFORMERS
The ratio and phase-angle inaccuracies of any standard ASA accuracy class1 of potential
transformer are so small that they may be neglected for protective-relaying purposes if
the burden is within the "thermal" volt-ampere rating of the transformer. This thermal
volt-ampere rating corresponds to the full-load rating of a power transformer. It is higher
than the volt-ampere rating used to classify potential transformers as to accuracy for
metering purposes. Based on the thermal volt-ampere rating, the equivalent-circuit
impedances of potential transformers are comparable to those of distribution
transformers.
The "burden" is the total external volt-ampere load on the secondary at rated
secondary voltage. Where several loads are connected in parallel, it is usually
sufficiently accurate to add their individual volt-amperes arithmetically to determine
the total volt-ampere burden. If a potential transformer has acceptable accuracy at its
rated voltage, it is suitable over the range from zero to 110% of rated less voltage.
Operation in excess of 10% overvoltage may cause increased errors and excessive
heating. Where precise accuracy data are required, they can be obtained from ratiocorrection factor curves and phase-angle-correction curves supplied by the
manufacturer.
CAPACITANCE POTENTIAL
DEVICES
What is Ferroresonance?
Consider the case of the nonlinear, saturable inductor. The graphical solution is
shown in the figure. It is apparent that there can be as many as three intersections of
the capacitor line with the inductor curve. Intersection 2 is an unstable operating
point, and the solution will not remain there in the steady state. However, it might
pass through this point during a transient. Intersections 1 and 3 are stable and will
exist in the steady state. Clearly, if the intersection 3 solution occurs, there will be
both high voltages and high currents. For small capacitances, the XC line is very
steep, usually resulting in only one intersection in the third quadrant. The capacitive
reactance is larger than the inductive reactance, resulting in a leading current and
higher than normal voltages across the capacitor. The voltage across the capacitor is
the length of the line from the system voltage intersection to the intersection with the
inductor curve. As the capacitance increases, multiple intersections can develop as
shown. The natural tendency then is to achieve a solution at intersection 1, which is
an inductive solution with lagging current and little voltage across the capacitor. Note
that the voltage across the capacitor will be the line-to-ground voltage on the cable in
the typical ferroresonance case. For a slight increase in the voltage, the capacitor
line would shift upward, eliminating the solution at intersection 1. The solution would
then try to jump to the third quadrant. Of course, the resulting current might be so
great that the voltage then drops again and we get the solution point jumping
between 1 and 3. Indeed, phenomena like this are observed during instances of
ferroresonance. The voltage and current appear to vary randomly and unpredictably.
In the usual power system case, ferroresonance occurs when a transformer
becomes isolated on a cable section in such a manner that the cable capacitance
appears to be in series with the magnetizing characteristic of the transformer. For
short lengths of cable, the capacitance is very small and there is one solution in the
third quadrant at relatively low voltage levels. As the capacitance increases the
solution point creeps up the saturation curve in the third quadrant until the voltage
across the capacitor is well above normal. These operating points can be relatively
stable, depending on the nature of the transient events that precipitated the
ferroresonance.