Dasar Keteknikan Pengolahan

Pangan
Sudarminto Setyo Yuwono

Apple Cooling
qfrig

INTRODUCTION

Food process engineering: includes the part of human activity to convert raw material to be
ready or processed foods
The main objective: to study the principles and laws governing the physical, chemical, or
biochemical stages of different processes, and the apparatus or equipment by which such
stages are industrially carried out
The study of process engineering is an attempt to combine all forms of physical processing
into a small number of basic operations, which are called unit operations
Food processes may seem bewildering in their diversity, but careful analysis will show that
these complicated and differing processes can be broken down into a small number of unit
operations
Important unit operations in the food industry are fluid flow, heat transfer, drying,
evaporation, contact equilibrium processes (which include distillation, extraction, gas
absorption, crystallization, and membrane processes), mechanical separations (which
include filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation and sieving), size reduction and mixing.

The aims of the food industry

1. To extend the period during which a food remains wholesome (the
shelf life) by preservation techniques which inhibit microbiological or
biochemical changes and thus allow time for distribution, sales and
home storage.
2. To increase variety in the diet by providing a range of attractive
flavours, colours, aromas and textures in food (collectively known as
eating quality, sensory characteristics or organoleptic quality); a related
aim is to change the form of the food to allow further processing (for
example the milling of grains to flour).
3. To provide the nutrients required for health (termed nutritional quality
of a food).
4. To generate income for the manufacturing company

Food processes are usually

schematized by means of
flow charts
diagrams indicate different
manufacturing steps, as well
as the flow of materials and
energy in the process.
There are different types of
flow charts; the most
common use blocks or
rectangles. connected by
arrows to indicate the way in
which the
materials flow.

DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

All engineering deals with definite and measured
quantities, and so depends on the making of
measurements
To make a measurement is to compare the unknown with
the known
record of a measurement consists of three parts: the
dimension of the quantity, the unit which represents a
known or standard quantity and a number which is the ratio
of the measured quantity to the standard quantity

1.2 BESARAN DAN SATUAN

Besaran :
Sesuatu yang dapat diukur dinyatakan dengan angka (kuantitatif) Contoh : panjang, massa, waktu,
suhu, dll.

Mengukur :
Membandingkan sesuatu dengan sesuatu yang lain yang sejenis yang ditetapkan sebagai satuan.

contoh : panjang jalan 10 km

Besaran Fisika baru terdefenisi jika :

ada nilainya (besarnya)

ada satuannya

satuan
nilai

1.4

 Satuan :
Ukuran dari suatu
besaran ditetapkan sebagai satuan.
meter,
kilometer
satuan panjang
Contoh :
detik, menit, jam
satuan waktu
gram, kilogram
satuan massa
dll.

Sistem satuan : ada 2 macam

1. Sistem Metrik : a. mks (meter, kilogram, sekon)
b. cgs (centimeter, gram, sekon)
2. Sistem Non metrik (sistem British)

Sistem Internasional (SI)

Sistem satuan mks yang telah disempurnakan yang paling banyak
dipakai sekarang ini.
Dalam SI :
Ada 7 besaran pokok berdimensi dan 2 besaran pokok tak berdimensi
1.5

7 Besaran Pokok dalam Sistem internasional (SI)

NO

Besaran Pokok

Satuan

Singkatan

Dimensi

Panjang

Meter

Massa

Kilogram

kg

Waktu

Sekon

Arus Listrik

Ampere

Suhu

Kelvin

Intensitas Cahaya

Candela

cd

Jumlah Zat

Mole

mol

Besaran Pokok Tak Berdimensi

NO

Besaran Pokok

Satuan

Sudut Datar

Radian

Sudut Ruang

Steradian

Singkatan

Dimensi

rad

sr

1.6

 Dimensi
Cara besaran itu tersusun oleh besaran pokok.
- Guna Dimensi :
1. Untuk menurunkan satuan dari suatu besaran
2. Untuk meneliti kebenaran suatu rumus atau persamaan
- Metode penjabaran dimensi :
1. Dimensi ruas kanan = dimensi ruas kiri
2. Setiap suku berdimensi sama

Besaran Turunan
Besaran yang diturunkan dari besaran pokok.

1.7

Contoh :
a. Tidak menggunakan nama khusus

NO

Besaran

Satuan

Kecepatan

meter/detik

Luas

meter 2

b. Mempunyai nama khusus

NO

Besaran

Satuan

Lambang

1 Gaya

Newton

2 Energi

Joule

3 Daya

Watt

4 Frekuensi

Hertz

Hz

1.8

Besaran Turunan dan Dimensi

NO

Besaran Pokok

Rumus

Dimensi

Luas

panjang x lebar

[L]2

Volume

panjang x lebar x tinggi

[L]3

Massa Jenis

Kecepatan

perpindahan
waktu

Percepatan

kecepatan
waktu

Gaya

massa x percepatan

[M] [L] [T]-2

Usaha dan Energi

gaya x perpindahan

[M] [L]2 [T]-2

Impuls dan Momentum

gaya x waktu

[M] [L] [T]-1

massa
volume

[m] [L]-3
[L] [T]-1
[L] [T]-2

1.9

Faktor Penggali dalam SI

NO

Faktor

Nama

Simbol

10 -18

atto

10 -15

femto

10 -12

piko

10 -9

nano

10 -6

mikro

10 -3

mili

10 3

kilo

10 6

mega

10 9

giga

10

10 12

tera

1.10

Contoh Soal
1. Tentukan dimensi dan satuannya dalam SI untuk besaran turunan berikut :
a. Gaya
b. Berat Jenis
c. Tekanan
d. Usaha
e. Daya
Jawab :
a. Gaya

= massa x percepatan
=M
x LT -2
= MLT -2 satuan kgms-2

c. Tekanan =

gaya
luas

b. Berat Jenis =

berat
volume

Gaya
= Volume

MLT -2
=
L3

= MLT-2 (L-3)
= ML-2T-2 satuan kgm-2

MLT -2
= L2

= MLT -2 satuan kgm-1s-1

d. Usaha = gaya x jarak = MLT -2 x L = ML 2 T -2 satuan kgm-2s-2

e. Daya =

usaha
waktu

ML 2 T -2
T

= ML 2 T -1 satuan kgm-2s-1

1.11

2. Buktikan besaran-besaran berikut adalah identik :

a. Energi Potensial dan Energi Kinetik
b. Usaha/Energi dan Kalor
Jawab :
a. Energi Potensial : Ep = mgh
Energi potensial = massa x gravitasi x tinggi
= M x LT-2 x L = ML2T-2
Energi Kinetik : Ek
Energi Kinetik

= mv2
= x massa x kecepatan2
= M x (LT-1) 2

= ML2T-2

Keduanya (Ep dan Ek) mempunyai dimensi yang sama keduanya identik

b. Usaha = ML2T-2
Energi = ML2T-2
Kalor = 0.24 x energi = ML2T-2
Ketiganya memiliki dimensi yang sama identik

1.12

Dimensionless Ratios

It is often easier to visualize quantities if they are expressed in ratio form and ratios have the
great advantage of being dimensionless

For example, specific gravity is a simple way to express the relative masses or weights of
equal volumes of various materials. The specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight
of a volume of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of water
SG = weight of a volume of the substance/ weight of an equal volume of water .
Dimensionally, SG=[F]/ [L]-3 divided by[F]/ [L]-3 = 1
it gives an immediate sense of proportion
This sense of proportion is very important to food technologists as they are constantly
making approximate mental calculations for which they must be able to maintain correct
proportions
Another advantage of a dimensionless ratio is that it does not depend upon the units of
measurement used, provided the units are consistent for each dimension
Dimensionless ratios are employed frequently in the study of fluid flow and heat flow. These
dimensionless ratios are then called dimensionless numbers and are often called after a
prominent person who was associated with them, for example Reynolds number, Prandtl
number, and Nusselt number

Suhu dan komposisi

C, F, K
Fraksi mol, konsentrasi
Suatu wadah berisi 50g air dan 50 g NaOH, berapa
fraksimol masing-masing
Albumin 2% berat memiliki densitas 1,028g/cm 3.
Berat molekul albumin 67000 g/g mol. Berapa
fraksi mol masing-masing komponen

Neraca Massa
Sangat penting dalam menentukan efisiensi proses
dan memprediksi hasil akhir proses
Rumus umum => massa in = massa out +
akumulasi
Neraca massa:
Proses-proses yang tidak terjadi reaksi kimia
Proses-proses yang terjadi reaksi kimia

Proses yang tidak terjadi reaksi kimia

Proses yang tidak mengalami reaksi kimia:
Pengeringan,
pembekuan,
pemekatan,
kristalisasi,
Pencampuran, dsb

Reaksi kimia mungkin terjadi pada proses tersebut

namun tidak terlalu mempengaruhi massa total

Tahapan perhitungan

Gambar diagram
Tulis reaksi kimia jika ada
Tulis dasar-dasar perhitungan
Hitung neraca massanya

Contoh neraca massa

Larutan soda api (NaOH), sebanyak 1000 kg/jam
mengandung 10% NaOH di pekatkan pada
evaporator sehingga kadarnya menjadi 60%.
Hitung larutan NaOH pekat yang dihasilkan.
Cabe 100 kg berkadar air 80% dikeringkan hingga
kadar air 10%. Berapa kilogram cabe kering yang
dihasilkan

Dikerjakan dan dikumpulkan

Proses produksi selai buah dilakukan dengan cara
memekatkan bubur buah dari kadar padatan 10%
menjadi 30%. Pemekatan dilakukan dalam 2 tahap
evaporator. Pada evaporator yang pertama kadar
padatan meningkat menjadi 22%. Hitung selai buah
yang dihasilkan untuk tiap 100 kg/jam bubur buah
yang dipakai.

Tugas dikerjakan dan dikumpulkan

Adonan biskuit diperoleh dengan mencampurkan Terigu
sebanyak 60% berat, gula 10%, telur 10%, garam 3%, mentega
12% dan air 5%. Jika diketahui kadar protein terigu dan telur
sebesar 10% dan 15% berapa kadar protein adonan.
Proses pembuatan daging burger dilakukan dengan
mencampurkan daging sapi dengan lemak sapi. Daging sapi
memiliki kadar protein 15%, lemak 20% dan air 63%,
sedangkan lemak sapi berkadar protein 3%, lemak 80%, air
15%. Berapa daging sapi dan lemak sapi yang ditambahkan
untuk memperoleh adonan daging burger sebanyak 100 kg
dengan kadar lemak 25%?

Batas proses (boundary)

Batas proses dapat digunakan untuk menyederhanakan suatu
proses
Dapat diperluas atau diperkecil

Dikerjakan
Nira tebu 1000 kg/jam berkadar gula 20%
dipekatkan hingga kadar gula 60%. Nira pekat
selanjutnya dikristalisasi pada suhu 20 oC.
Konsentrasi kejenuhan gula pada suhu 20 oC
sebesar 40%. Berapa kg/jam kristal gula yang
dihasilkan? Diasumsikan kristal gula tidak
mengandung air

Proses pencampuran
Draw a diagram and set up equations representing total mass
balance and component mass balance for a system involving the
mixing of pork (15% protein, 20% fat, and 63% water) and backfat
(15% water, 80% fat, and 3% protein) to make 100 kg of a mixture
containing 25% fat.

Draw a diagram and set up a total mass and component balance equation for a crystallizer
where 100 kg of a concentrated sugar solution containing 85% sucrose and 1% inert, watersoluble impurities (balance, water) enters. Upon cooling, the sugar crystallizes from solution.
A centrifuge then separates the crystals from a liquid fraction, called the mother liquor. The
crystal slurry fraction has, for 20% of its weight, a liquid having the same composition as the
mother liquor. The mother liquor contains 60% sucrose by weight.

Neraca massa jika terjadi reaksi kimia

Beberapa proses pengolahan kemungkinan terjadi
reaksi kimia
Fermentasi
Pembakaran
Netralisasi

Dasar perhitungan bukan dari massa tetapi dari

perubahan mol
Setelah itu baru dikonversikan ke massa

contoh
Pembakaran C
Pembuatan sodium sitrat C6H5Na3O7 dari asam
sitrat C6H8O7 dengan NaOH
Gas LPG : Propana (C3H8) dan Butana (C4H10),
serta sejumlah kecil Etana (C2H6,) dan Pentana
(C5H12).

Tahapan
Konversikan semua massa menjadi mol
Dari reaksi kimia hitung jumlah mol yang
dibutuhkan serta mol produk
Neraca massa diperoleh dengan mengkonversi mol
bahan dan mol produk menjadi massa

Harap dikerjakan
Larutan NaOH diproduksi dengan cara
menambahkan larutan Na2CO3 berkadar 10% ke
dalam aliran bubur Ca(OH)2 yang berkadar 25%.
Bagaimana komposisi bubur akhir (komponen dan
kadarnya) jika reaksi 90% sempurna. Gunakan
dasar 100 kg/jam aliran bubur Ca(OH) 2
Ca(OH) 2 + Na2CO3 => 2NaOH + CaCO3
MR Ca(OH) 2= 74,1; MR Na2CO3 = 106

contoh
Bahan bakar mengandung 5 %mol H2, 30 %mol
CO, 5 %mol CO2, 1 %mol O2, dan 59 %mol N2.
Dibakar dengan media udara. Untuk 100 kg mol
bahan bakar hitung mol gas buang dan
komponennya, jika :
A. Pembakaran sempurna, udara pas
B. Pembakaran 90% sempurna, udara pas
C. Udara berlebih 20%, pembakaran sempurna
80%

 Bubur susu berkadar air 80%. Pada proses

fermentasi bubur susu, Laktosa C12H22O11
dioksidasi
Untuk 100g bubur susu, jika sebanyak 1 g laktosa
yang dioksidasi, berapa kadar air bubur susu
setelah fermentasi

 Selai dibuat dengan formulasi 45 bagian adalah buah dan 55 bagian

adalah gula.. Untuk menghasilkan gel yang baik, maka kandungan
padatan terlarut selai minimal 65%. Proses pembuatan meliputi
pencampuran bubur buah, gula, dan pektin lalu dievaporasi sehingga
diperoleh selai. Pektin yang ditambahkan pada pembuatan selai
adalah pectin 100 grade (untuk tiap 1 kg pektin memerlukan gula
100kg). Jumlah pektin yang ditambahkan bergantung pada jumlah
gula yang digunakan. Jika bubur buah mengandung padatan terlarut
10% hitung kebutuhan bubur buah, gula dan pektin yang
ditambahkan untuk menghasilkan 100 kg selai. Pektin tidak
mengandung padatan terlarut.

 Sodium sitrat (Na2C6H6O7) dibentuk dengan

mereaksikan larutan asam sitrat (C6H8O7) 10%
(berat) dengan bubur NaOH 50% (berat). Untuk
tiap 100 kg larutan asam sitrat, buat neraca
massanya (reaksi berlangsung sempurna)
Berat atom O : 16; C : 12; H : 1; Na : 23

C12H22O11 + 12O2 =>12CO2 + 11H2O

Suatu larutan asam sitrat (C6H8O7) 12%(berat) direaksikan dengan
NaOH sehingga terbentuk Sodium Sitrat (Na2C6H6O7). Sodium sitrat
yang terbentuk dipekatkan sehingga diperoleh larutan dengan
konsentrasi 35% berat. Larutan lalu didinginkan pada suhu 15oC
untuk mengkristalkan sodium sitrat. Jika kelarutan sodium sitrat pada
suhu 15oC sebesar 20% berat, hitung kristal sodium sitrat yang
diperoleh, untuk setiap 100 kg asam sitrat
Asumsi : - Sodium sitrat dalam bentuk anhydrous
Berat atom O : 16; C : 12; H : 1; Na : 23
Reaksi berlangsung secara sempurna

Recycle
Proses pengulangan ke tahap sebelumnya dengan
tujuan memperbaiki sifat produk sesuai kebutuhan
Banyak digunakan pada proses
Evaporasi
Kristalisasi
Fermentasi

Tahap :
perluas batasan proses
Hitung yang direcycle

Contoh Recycle dikerjakan

Pada suatu proses produksi sodium sitrat,
1000kg/jam larutan sodium sitrat berkadar 10%
dipekatkan di suatu evaporator bersuhu 353K
sehingga diperoleh kadar 40%. Larutan lalu
dimasukkan ke kristalizer yang bersuhu 303K
sehingga diperoleh kristal Na sitrat berkadar air
5%. Larutan jenuh yang mengandung 30% Na
sitrat lalu direcycle ke evaporator. Hitung berapa
laju aliran recycle dan produk yang dihasilkan.

Harap dikerjakan
Pada industri gula, larutan gula 1000 kg/jam
berkadar 25% dipekatkan hingga berkadar 55%.
Larutan tersebut lalu dimasukkan ke kristalizer
sehingga diperoleh kristal gula berkadar air 15%.
Larutan jenuh berkadar gula 40% selanjutnya
direcycle ke evaporator lagi. Kristal gula yang
dihasilkan lalu dikeringkan hingga berkadar air 5%.
Hitung jumlah larutan yang direcycle dan gula yang
dihasilkan.

 Evaporator berkapasitas menguapkan air sebanyak

10 kg/jam sehingga kadar padatan berubah dari
5,5% menjadi 25%. Untuk meningkatkan kualitas
produk, sebagian konsentrat di-recycle dan
dicampurkan dengan bahan masuk dengan
menggunakan pompa berkapasitas 20 kg
campuran/jam. Hitung berapa banyak aliran
konsentrat yang dihasilkan serta aliran re-cycle
nya.

FLUID FLOW THEORY

Many raw materials for foods and many finished
foods are in the form of fluids.
Thin liquids - milk, water, fruit juices,
Thick liquids - syrups, honey, oil, jam,
Gases - air, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
Fluidized solids - grains, flour, peas.
The study of fluids can be divided into:
the study of fluids at rest - fluid statics, and
the study of fluids in motion - fluid dynamics.

FLUID STATICS
very important property : the fluid pressure
Pressure is force exerted on an area
force is equal to the mass of the material multiplied by
the acceleration due to gravity.
mass of a fluid can be calculated by multiplying its volume
by its density
F = mg = Vg
F is force (Newton) or kg m s-2, m is the mass, g the
acceleration due to gravity, V the volume and the density.

The force per unit area in a fluid is called the fluid pressure. It is exerted
equally in all directions.
F = APs + ZAg
Ps is the pressure above the surface of the
fluid (e.g. it might be atmospheric pressure
total pressure P = F/A = Ps + Zg
the atmospheric pressure represents a
datum P = Zg

EXAMPLE . Total pressure in a tank of

peanut oil
Calculate the greatest pressure in a spherical tank,
of 2 m diameter, filled with peanut oil of specific
gravity 0.92, if the pressure measured at the
highest point in the tank is 70 kPa.

 Density of water
= 1000 kg m-3
Density of oil
= 0.92 x 1000 kg m-3 = 920 kg m-3
Z =greatest depth
=2m
and
g = 9.81 m s-2
Now P = Zg
= 2 x 920 x 9.81 kg m-1 s-2
= 18,050 Pa = 18.1 kPa.
To this must be added the pressure at the surface of 70 kPa.
Total pressure
= 70 + 18.1 = 88.1 kPa.
the pressure depends upon the pressure at the top of the tank, the
depth of the liquid

Expressing the pressure

absolute
pressures
gauge
pressures

head

EXAMPLE. Head of Water

Calculate the head of water equivalent and mercury to standard
atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa.
Density of water = 1000 kg m-3, Density of mercury = 13,600 kg m-3
g = 9.81 m s-2
and pressure = 100 kPa
= 100 x 103 Pa = 100 x 103 kg m-1s-2.

Water

Mercury Z

= P/ g
= (100 x 103)/ (1000 x 9.81)
= 10.2 m
= (100 x 103)/ (13,600 x 9.81)
= 0.75m

FLUID DYNAMICS
In most processes fluids have to be moved
Problems on the flow of fluids are solved by
applying the principles of conservation of mass and
energy
The motion of fluids can be described by writing
appropriate mass and energy balances and these
are the bases for the design of fluid handling
equipment.

Mass Balance

1A1v1 = 2A2v2
incompressible
1 = 2
so in this case
A1v1 = A2v2
(continuity equation)
area of the pipe at
section 1 is A1 , the
velocity at this section,
v1 and the fluid
density 1 , and if the
corresponding values
at section 2 are A2,
v2, 2

EXAMPLE. Velocities of flow

Whole milk is flowing into a centrifuge through a full
5 cm diameter pipe at a velocity of 0.22 m s -1, and
in the centrifuge it is separated into cream of
specific gravity 1.01 and skim milk of specific
gravity 1.04. Calculate the velocities of flow of milk
and of the cream if they are discharged through 2
cm diameter pipes. The specific gravity of whole
milk of 1.035.

Solving
1A1v1 = 2A2v2 + 3A3v3
where suffixes 1, 2, 3 denote respectively raw milk, skim milk and
cream.
since the total leaving volumes equal the total entering volume
A1v1 = A2v2 + A3v3
v2 = (A1v1 - A3v3 )/A2
1A1v1 = 2A2(A1v1 A3v3)/A2 + 3A3v3
1 A1v1 = 2 A1v1 - 2 A3v3 + 3 A3v3
A1v1(1 - 2 ) = A3v3(3 - 2 )

 A1 = (/4) x (0.05)2 = 1.96 x 10-3 m2

A2 = A3 = (/4) x (0.02)2 = 3.14 x 10-4 m2
v1 = 0.22 m s-1
1 = 1.035, 2 = 1.04, 3 = 1.01
A1v1(1 - 2 ) = A3v3(3 - 2 )
-1.96 x 10-3 x 0.22 (0.005) = -3.14 x 10-4 x v3 x (0.03)
v3 = 0.23 m s-1
v2 = (A1v1 - A3v3 )/A2
v2 = [(1.96 x 10-3 x 0.22) - (3.14 x 10-4 x 0.23)] / 3.14 x 10-4
= 1.1m s-1

Energy Balance
Referring Fig. before we shall consider the changes in the total energy of unit
mass of fluid, one kilogram, between Section 1 and Section 2.
Firstly, there are the changes in the intrinsic energy of the fluid itself which include
changes in:
(1) Potential energy = Ep = Zg (J)
(2) Kinetic energy = Ek = v2/2 (J)
(3) Pressure energy = Er = P/ (J)
Secondly, there may be energy interchange with the surroundings including:
(4) Energy lost to the surroundings due to friction = E (J).
(5) Mechanical energy added by pumps = Ec (J).
(6) Heat energy in heating or cooling the fluid
In the analysis of the energy balance, it must be remembered that energies are
normally measured from a datum or reference level.
Ep1 + Ek1 + Er1 = Ep2 + Ek2 + Er2 + Ef - Ec.
Z1g + v12/2 + P1/1 = Z2g + v22/2 + P2/2 + Ef - Ec.
Zg + v2/2 + P/ = k
Persamaan Bernouilli

Water flows at the rate of 0.4 m3 min-1 in a 7.5 cm diameter pipe at a pressure of 70
kPa. If the pipe reduces to 5 cm diameter calculate the new pressure in the pipe.
Density of water is 1000 kg m-3.

Flow rate of water = 0.4 m3 min-1 = 0.4/60 m3 s-1.

Area of 7.5 cm diameter pipe = (/4)D2
= ( /4)(0.075)2
= 4.42 x 10 -3 m2.
So velocity of flow in 7.5 cm diameter pipe,
v1 = (0.4/60)/(4.42 x 10-3) = 1.51 m s-1
Area of 5 cm diameter pipe = (/4)(0.05)2
= 1.96 x 10 -3 m2
and so velocity of flow in 5 cm diameter pipe,
v2 = (0.4/60)/(1.96 x 10-3) = 3.4 m s-1
Now
Z1g + v12/2 + P1 /1 = Z2g + v22/2 + P2 / 2
and so
0 + (1.51)2/2 + 70 x 103/1000 = 0 + (3.4)2/2 + P2/1000
0 + 1.1 + 70 = 0 + 5.8 + P 2/1000
P 2/1000 = (71.1 - 5.8) = 65.3
P2 = 65.3k Pa.

Water is raised from a reservoir up 35 m to a storage tank through a 7.5 cm diameter pipe. If it
is required to raise 1.6 cubic metres of water per minute, calculate the horsepower input to a
pump assuming that the pump is 100% efficient and that there is no friction loss in the pipe.
1 Horsepower = 0.746 kW.

Volume of flow, V = 1.6 m3 min-1 = 1.6/60 m3 s-1 = 2.7 x 10-2 m3 s-1

Area of pipe, A = (/4) x (0.075)2 = 4.42 x 10-3 m2,
Velocity in pipe, v = 2.7 x 10-2/(4.42 x 10-3) = 6 m s-1,
And so applying eqn
Z1g + v12/2 + P1/1 = Z2g + v22/2 + P2/2 + Ef - Ec.
Ec = Zg + v2/2
Ec = 35 x 9.81 + 62/2
= 343.4 + 18
= 361.4 J
Therefore total power required
= Ec x mass rate of flow
= EcV
= 361.4 x 2.7 x 10-2 x 1000 J s-1
= 9758 J s-1
and, since 1 h.p. = 7.46 x 102 J s-1,
required power = 13 h.p.

VISCOSITY
Viscosity is that property of a fluid that gives rise to forces
that resist the relative movement of adjacent layers in the
fluid.
Viscous forces are of the same character as shear
forces in solids and they arise from forces that exist
between the molecules.
If two parallel plane elements in a fluid are moving relative
to one another, it is found that a steady force must be
applied to maintain a constant relative speed. This force is
called the viscous drag because it arises from the action of
viscous forces.

If the plane elements are at a distance Z apart, and if their relative velocity is v, then
the force F required to maintain the motion has been found, experimentally, to be
proportional to v and inversely proportional to Z for many fluids. The coefficient of
proportionality is called the viscosity of the fluid, and it is denoted by the symbol
(mu).
From the definition of viscosity we can write
F/A = v/Z

Unit of Viscosity

N s m-2 = Pascal second, Pa s,

The older units, the poise and its sub-unit the centipoise,
1000 centipoises = 1 N s m-2, or 1 Pa s.
the viscosity of water at room temperature 1 x 10-3 N s m -2
acetone, 0.3 x 10-3 N s m-2;
tomato pulp, 3 x 10-3;
olive oil, 100 x 10-3;
molasses 7000 N s m-3.
Viscosity is very dependent on temperature decreasing sharply as
the temperature rises. For example, the viscosity of golden syrup is
about 100 N s m-3 at 16C, 40 at 22C and 20 at 25C.

Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids

F/A = v /Z = (dv/dz) =
= k(dv/dz)n power-law equation
Newtonian fluids (n = 1, k = )
Non-Newtonian fluids (n 1)
(1) Those in which n < 1. The viscosity is apparently
high under low shear forces decreasing as the shear
force increases. Pseudoplastic (tomato puree)
(2) Those in which n > 1. With a low apparent viscosity
under low shear stresses, they become more viscous
as the shear rate rises. Dilatancy (gritty slurries such as
crystallized sugar solutions).
Bingham fluids have to exceed a particular shear stress
level (a yield stress) before they start to move.
Food : Non-Newtonian

STREAMLINE AND TURBULENT FLOW

STREAMLINE, flow is calm, in slow the pattern and
smooth
TURBULENT, the flow is more rapid, eddies develop and
swirl in all directions and at all angles to the general line of
flow.
v2D/v = Dv/Reynolds number (Re), dimensionless
D is the diameter of the pipe
For (Re) < 2100 streamline flow,
For 2100 < (Re) < 4000 transition,
For (Re) > 4000 turbulent flow.

EXAMPLE . Flow of milk in a pipe

Milk is flowing at 0.12 m3 min-1 in a 2.5-cm diameter pipe. If the
temperature of the milk is 21C, is the flow turbulent or streamline?
Viscosity of milk at 21C = 2.1 cP = 2.10 x 10-3 N s m-2
Density of milk at 21C = 1029 kg m -3.
Diameter of pipe = 0.025 m.
Cross-sectional area of pipe = (/4)D2
= /4 x (0.025)2
= 4.9 x 10-4 m2
Rate of flow = 0.12 m3 min-1 = (0.12/60) m3 s-1 = 2 x 10 m3 s-1
So velocity of flow = (2 x 10-3)/(4.9 x 10-4)
= 4.1 m s-1,
and so (Re) = (Dv/)
= 0.025 x 4.1 x 1029/(2.1 x 10-3)
= 50,230
and this is greater than 4000 so that the flow is turbulent.

ENERGY LOSSES IN FLOW

Friction in Pipes
Energy Losses in Bends and Fittings
Pressure Drop through Equipment
Equivalent Lengths of Pipe

Friction in Pipes
E : the energy loss due to friction in the pipe.
E : proportional to the velocity pressure of the fluid and to a factor related
to the smoothness of the surface over which the fluid is flowing.
F/A = f v2/2
F is the friction force, A is the area over which the friction force acts, is
the density of the fluid, v is the velocity of the fluid, and f is a coefficient
called the friction factor (depends upon the Reynolds number for the flow, and
upon the roughness of the pipe).

P1 - P2 = (4fv2/2)(L1 - L2)/D
Pf = (4fv2/2) x (L/D)
(Fanning-D'Arcy equation)
E = Pf/ = (2fv2)(L/D)
L = L1 - L2 = length of pipe in which the pressure drop, Pf = P1 - P2 is the
frictional pressure drop, and E is the frictional loss of energy.

Friction factors in pipe (Moody graph)

predicted f
f = 16/(Re) streamline flow, Hagen-Poiseuille
equation 0 < (Re) < 2100
= 0.316 ( Re)-0.25/4 ( Blasius equation for smooth
pipes in the range 3000 < (Re) < 100,000)
roughness ratio = Roughness factor ()/pipe
diameter
(turbulent region)

ROUGHNESS FACTORS FOR PIPES

Material

Roughness factor
()

Material

Roughness factor
()

Riveted steel

0.001- 0.01

Galvanized
iron

0.0002

0.0003 - 0.003

Asphalted
cast iron

0.001

Wood staves

0.0002 - 0.003

Commercial
steel

0.00005

Cast iron

0.0003

Drawn tubing Smooth

Concrete

EXAMPLE Pressure drop in a pipe

Calculate the pressure drop along 170 m of 5 cm diameter horizontal steel pipe
through which olive oil at 20C is flowing at the rate of 0.1 m3 min-1

Diameter of pipe = 0.05 m,

Area of cross-section A
= (/4)D2
= /4 x (0.05)2
= 1.96 x 10-3 m2
From Appendix 4,
Viscosity of olive oil at 20C = 84 x 10-3 Ns m-2 and density = 910 kg m-3,
and velocity = (0.1 x 1/60)/(1.96 x 10-3) = 0.85 m s-1,
Now
(Re) = (Dv/)
= [(0.05 x 0.85 x 910)/(84 x 10-3)]
= 460
so that the flow is streamline, and from Fig. moody, for (Re) = 460
f = 0.03.
Alternatively for streamline flow from f = 16/(Re) = 16/460 = 0.03 as before.
And so the pressure drop in 170 m,

Pf = (4fv2/2) x (L/D)

= [4 x 0.03 x 910 x (0.85)2 x 1/2] x [170 x 1/0.05]

= 1.34 x 105 Pa
= 134 kPa.

Thermal
conductivity
Water

Sucrose 20% soln.

Specific heat

Density

Viscosity

Temperature

(J m-1 s-1 C-1)

(kJ kg-1 C-1)

(kg m-3)

(N s m-2)

(C)

0.57

4.21

1000

1.87 x 10-3

4.21

987

0.56 x 10-3

50

0.68

4.18

958

0.28 x 10-3

100

0.54

3.8

1070

1.92 x 10-3

20

0.59 x 10-3

80

6.2 x 10-3

20

5.4 x 10-3

80

60% soln.
Sodium chloride 22%
soln.

0.54

3.4

1240

2.7 x 10-3

Olive oil

0.17

2.0

910

84 x 10-3

20

Rape-seed oil

900

118 x 10-3

20

Soya-bean oil

910

40 x 10-3

30

Tallow

900

18 x 10-3

65

1030

2.12 x 10-3

20

Milk (skim)

1040

1.4 x 10-3

25

Cream 20% fat

1010

6.2 x 10-3

30% fat

1000

13,8 x 10-3

Milk (whole)

0.56

3.9

Energy Losses in Bends and Fittings

energy losses due to altering the direction of flow,
fittings of varying cross-section
This energy is dissipated in eddies and additional
turbulence and finally lost in the form of heat.
E = kv2/2
Losses in fittings
Ef = (v1 - v2)2/2
Ef = kv22/2

Losses in sudden enlargements

Losses in sudden contraction

FRICTION LOSS
FACTORS IN FITTINGS
k
Valves, fully open:

LOSS FACTORS IN
CONTRACTIONS

gate

0.13

globe

6.0

angle

3.0

90 standard

0.74

D2/D1

0.1

0.3

0.5

0.7

0.9

medium sweep

0.5

long radius

0.25

0.36

0.31

0.22

0.11

0.02

square

1.5

Elbows:

Tee, used as elbow

1.5

Tee, straight through

0.5

Entrance, large tank to pipe:

sharp

0.5

rounded

0.05

FLUID-FLOW APPLICATIONS

Two practical aspects of fluid flow in food technology :

measurement in fluids: pressures and flow rates, and
production of fluid flow by means of pumps and fans.
Pumps and fans are very similar in principle and usually
have a centrifugal or rotating action
a gas : moved by a fan,
a liquid: moved by a pump.

MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE IN A
FLUID
Method :
Piezometer ("pressure measuring") tube
U-tube
Pitot tube
Pitot-static tube
Bourdon-tube

P = Z11g

EXAMPLE. Pressure in a vacuum evaporator

The pressure in a vacuum evaporator was measured by using a U-tube containing
mercury. It was found to be less than atmospheric pressure by 25 cm of mercury.
Calculate the extent by which the pressure in the evaporator is below atmospheric
pressure (i.e. the vacuum in the evaporator) in kPa, and also the absolute pressure in
the evaporator. The atmospheric pressure is 75.4 cm of mercury and the specific
gravity of mercury is 13.6, and the density of water is 1000 kg m-3.

We have P = Zg
= 25 x 10-2 x 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81
= 33.4 kPa
Therefore the pressure in the evaporator is 33.4 kPa below atmospheric pressure
and this is the vacuum in the evaporator.
For atmospheric pressure:
P = Zg
P = 75.4 x 10-2 x 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81
= 100.6 kPa
Therefore the absolute pressure in the evaporator
= 100.6 - 33.4
= 67.2 kPa

MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY IN A FLUID

Pitot tube and manometer :
Z1g + v12/2 + P1/1 = Z2g + v22/2 + P2/1
Z2 = Z + Z'
Z' be the height of the upper liquid surface in the pipe above the datum,
Z be the additional height of the fluid level in the tube above the upper liquid
surface in the pipe;
Z' may be neglected if P1 is measured at the upper surface of the liquid in the pipe,
or if Z' is small compared with Z
v2 = 0 as there is no flow in the tube
P2 = 0 if atmospheric pressure is taken as datum and if the top of the tube is open
to the atmosphere
Z1 = 0 because the datum level is at the mouth of the tube.
v12/2g + P1/1 = (Z + Z')g Z.
Pitot-static tube
Z = v2/2g

EXAMPLE . Velocity of air in a duct

Air at 0C is flowing through a duct in a chilling system. A Pitot-static
tube is inserted into the flow line and the differential pressure head,
measured in a micromanometer, is 0.8 mm of water. Calculate the
velocity of the air in the duct. The density of air at 0C is 1.3 kg m-3.
Z = v12/2g
1Z1 = 2Z2.
Now 0.8 mm water

= 0.8 x 10-3 x
= 0.62 m of air

v 12

= 2Zg

= 2 x 0.62 x 9.81
= 12.16 m2s-2
Therefore v1 = 3.5 m s-1

1000
1.3

Venturi and orifice meters

v12/2 + P1/1 = v22/2+ P2/2 (Bernouilli's equation)

A1v1 = A2v2

1 = 2 =

v12/2 + P1/ = (v1A1/A2)2/2 + P2/

(mass balance, eqn)

v12 = [2(P2 -P1)/] x A22/(A22 -A12)

(P2 -P1)/ = gZm /

Z = (P2 -P1)/m g

v1 = C [2(P2 -P1 )/]x A22/(A22 -A12 )

In a properly designed Venturi meter,

C lies between 0.95 and 1.0.

Pompa dan Fan

mechanical energy from some other source is converted
into pressure or velocity energy in a fluid.
The food technologist is not generally much concerned
with design details of pumps, but should know what
classes of pump are used and something about their
characteristics.
The efficiency of a pump is the ratio of the energy supplied
by the motor to the increase in velocity and pressure
energy given to the fluid.

Jenis Pompa
Positive Displacement Pumps
the fluid is drawn into the pump and is then forced
through the outlet
Positive displacement pumps can develop highpressure heads but they cannot tolerate throttling or
blockages in the discharge.

Jet Pumps
a high-velocity jet is produced in a Venturi nozzle, converting the
energy of the fluid into velocity energy.
This produces a low-pressure area causing the surrounding fluid to
be drawn into the throat
Jet pumps are used for difficult materials that cannot be satisfactorily
handled in a mechanical pump.
They are also used as vacuum pumps.
Jet pumps have relatively low efficiencies but they have no moving
parts and therefore have a low initial cost.

Air-lift Pumps

air or gas can be used to impart energy to the liquid

The air or gas can be either provided from external sources or produced by boiling within the
liquid. Examples of the air-lift principle are:
Air introduced into the fluid as shown in Fig. 4.3(e) to pump water from an artesian well.
Air introduced above a liquid in a pressure vessel and the pressure used to discharge the
liquid.
Vapours produced in the column of a climbing film evaporator.
In the case of powdered solids, air blown up through a bed of powder to convey it in a
"fluidized" form.
A special case of this is in the evaporator, where boiling of the liquid generates the gas
(usually steam) and it is used to promote circulation. Air or gas can be used directly to
provide pressure to blow a liquid from a container out to a region of lower pressure.
Air-lift pumps and air blowing are inefficient, but they are convenient for materials which will
not pass easily through the ports, valves and passages of other types of pumps.

Propeller Pumps and Fan

Propellers can be used to impart energy to fluids
They are used extensively to mix the contents of tanks and
in pipelines to mix and convey the fluid.
Propeller fans are common and have high efficiencies.
They can only be used for low heads, in the case of fans
only a few centimetres or so of water

Centrifugal Pumps and Fans

The centrifugal pump converts rotational energy into velocity and
pressure energy
The fluid to be pumped is taken in at the centre of a bladed rotor and
it then passes out along the spinning rotor, acquiring energy of
rotation. This rotational energy is then converted into velocity and
pressure energy at the periphery of the rotor.
Centrifugal fans work on the same principles. These machines are
very extensively used and centrifugal pumps can develop moderate
heads of up to 20 m of water. They can deliver very large quantities
of fluids with high efficiency.

Gambar jenis-jenis pompa

 EXAMPLE Centrifugal pump for raising water

Water for a processing plant is required to be stored in a reservoir to
supply sufficient working head for washers. It is believed that a
constant supply of 1.2 m3 min-1 pumped to the reservoir, which is 22
m above the water intake, would be sufficient. The length of the pipe
is about 120 m and there is available galvanized iron piping 15 cm
diameter. The line would need to include eight right-angle bends.
There is available a range of centrifugal pumps whose characteristics
are shown in Fig. 4.4. Would one of these pumps be sufficient for the
duty and what size of electric drive motor would be required?

Reynold number
Assume properties of water at 20C are density 998 kg m-3, and viscosity 0.001 N
s m-2
Cross-sectional area of pipe A = (/4)D2
= /4 x (0.15)2
= 0.0177 m-2
Volume of flow V = 1.2 m3 min-1
= 1.2/60 m3 s-1
= 0.02 m3 s-1.

Velocity in the pipe = V/A

= (0.02)/(0.0177)
= 1.13 ms-1

Now (Re) = Dv/

= (0.15 x 1.13 x 998)/0.001

= 1.7 x 105
so the flow is clearly turbulent.

friction loss of energy

From Table 3.1, the roughness factor is 0.0002 for galvanized
iron
and so
roughness ratio /D = 0.0002/0.15 = 0.001
So from Fig. 3.8,
= 0.0053
Therefore the friction loss of energy
= (4v2/2) x (L/D)
= [4v2L/2D]
= [4 x 0.0053 x (1.13)2 x 120]/(2 x 0.15)
= 10.8 J.

TABLE 3.1
RELATIVE ROUGHNESS FACTORS FOR PIPES

Material

Roughness factor ()

Material

Roughness factor ()

Riveted steel

0.001- 0.01

Galvanized iron

0.0002

Concrete

0.0003 - 0.003

Asphalted cast
iron

0.001

Wood staves

0.0002 - 0.003

Commercial
steel

0.00005

Cast iron

0.0003

Drawn tubing

Smooth

Friction factors in pipe

TABLE 3.2
FRICTION LOSS FACTORS IN FITTINGS
k
Valves, fully open:
gate

0.13

globe

6.0

angle

3.0

90 standard

0.74

medium sweep

0.5

long radius

0.25

square

1.5

Elbows:

Tee, used as elbow

1.5

Tee, straight through

0.5

Entrance, large tank to pipe:

sharp

0.5

rounded

0.05

Energy loss from bends and discharge

For the eight right-angled bends, from Table 3.2 we would
expect a loss of 0.74 velocity energies at each, making (8 x
0.74) = 6 in all.
velocity energy = v2/2
= (1.13)2/2
= 0.64 J
So total loss from bends and discharge energy
= (6 + 1) x 0.64
= 4.5 J
There would be one additional velocity energy loss
because of the unrecovered flow energy discharged into
the reservoir.

Energy to move 1 kg water

Energy to move 1 kg water against a head of 22 m
of water is
E = Zg
= 22 x 9.81
= 215.8 J.
Total energy requirement per kg:
Etot = 10.8 + 4.5 + 215.8
= 231.1 J

energy requirement of pump

and theoretical power requirement
= Energy x volume flow x density
= (Energy/kg) x kgs-1
= 231.1 x 0.02 x 998
= 4613 J s-1.
Now the head equivalent to the energy requirement
= Etot/g
= 231.1/9.81
= 23.5 m of water,
and from Fig. 4.4 this would require the 150 mm impeller pump to be
safe, and the pump would probably be fitted with a 5.5 kW motor.

Energy Balance

Gas and Vapour

naturally associated with foods and food-processing systems:
Equilibrium between food and water vapor determines temperatures achieved during
processing.
Dissolved gases in foods such as oxygen affect shelf life.
Gases are used to flush packages to eliminate oxygen and prolong shelf life.
Modified atmospheres in packages have been used to prolong shelf life of packaged foods.
Air is used for dehydration.
Gases are used as propellants in aerosol cans and as refrigerants.

The distinction between gases and vapors is very loose because

theoretically all vapors are gases.
The term vapor is generally used for the gaseous phase of a
substance that exists as a liquid or a solid at ambient conditions.

Kinetika Gas
The postulates of the kinetic theory
Gases are composed of discreet particles called molecules, which are in
constant random motion,colliding with each other and with the walls of the
surrounding vessel.
The force resulting from the collision between the molecules and the walls of
the surrounding vessel is responsible for the pressure of the gas.
The lower the pressure, the farther apart the molecules, thus, attractive forces
between moleculeshave reduced influence on the overall properties

of the gas.
The average kinetic energy of the molecules is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature

Absolute Temperature and Pressure

pressure : force of collisions of gas molecules against a surface in contact with the
gas.
pressure is proportional to the number of gas molecules and their velocity
(absolute pressure).
Pressure is often expressed as gauge pressure when the measured quantity is
greater than atmospheric pressure, and as vacuum when below atmospheric.
Unit: psig, psia, kPa absolute, kPa above atmospheric, atmospheres (atm)
standard atmosphere, the mean atmospheric pressure at sea level, equivalent to
760 mm Hg, 29.921 in. Hg, 101.325 kPa, or 14.696 lbf/in.2
Temperature (T) is a thermodynamic quantity related to the velocity of motion of
molecules

Absolute and gage pressure

Conversion factor

Calculate the absolute pressure inside an evaporator operating under

20 in. Hg vacuum. Atmospheric pressure is 30 in. Hg. Express this
pressure in SI and in the American Engineering System of units.
Pabsolute =Patmospheric Pvacuum =(30 20) in. Hg=10 in. Hg
From the table of conversion factors, the following conversion factors
are obtained:

The Ideal Gas Equation

Pressure, the force of collision between gas molecules and a surface, is directly
proportional to temperature and the number of molecules per unit volume.
PV = nRT the ideal gas equation.
R is the gas constant and has values of 0.08206 L(atm)/(gmole.K); or 8315 N(m)/
(kgmole.K) or 1545 ft(lbf)/(lbmole.R).
a fixed quantity of a gas that follows the ideal gas equation undergoes a process
where the volume, temperature, or pressure is allowed to change, the product of
the number of moles n and the gas constant R is a constant

Calculate the quantity of oxygen entering a package in 24 hours if the packaging

material has a surface area of 3000 cm2 and an oxygen permeability 100 cm3/(m2)(24
h) STP (standard temperature and pressure = 0oC and 1 standard atmosphere of
101.325 kPa).

Jawaban:

Calculate the volume of CO2 in ft3 at 70oF and 1 atm, which

would be produced by vaporization of 1 lb of dry ice.

Calculate the density of air (M = 29) at 70F and 1 atm in (a)

American Engineering
and (b) SI units.

Suatu proses memerlukan debit udara bertekanan 2 atm

sebesar 10 m3/s pada suhu 20C. Hitung debit kompresor
pada STP yang harus diberikan.

Kondisi STP adalah suhu (T) = 0oC (273 K),

tekanan (P) = 1 atm atau 101,325 kPa
Debit 1 (V1) = 10 m3/s; T1 = 293 K; P1 = 2 atm atau
202,65 kPa;
V = (P1V1T)/(T1P) = (2 x 293 x 273)/(293 x 1) =
18,64 m3/s

An empty can was sealed in a room at 80oC and 1 atm pressure. Assuming that only
air is inside the sealed can, what will be the vacuum after the can and contents cool to
20oC?

Solution:

Gas Mixtures
If components of a gas mixture at constant volume
are removed one after the other, the drop in
pressure accompanying complete removal of one
component is the partial pressure of that
component
Pt = Pa + Pb + Pc + . . . Pn (Daltons law of partial
pressures)
PaV = naRT

Hitung kuantitas udara pada headsapce kaleng yang bersuhu 20 oC jika tekanan
pada headspace sebesar 10 in Hg. Tekanan atmosfer sebesar 30 in Hg. Volume
headspace sebesar 15 ml berisi uap jenuh dan udara.

vapor pressure of water at 20oC = 2336.6 Pa.

Pt (tekanan absolut dalam kaleng) = 30-10 in Hg = 20 in Hg
= 20 x 3386,38 = 67727,6 Pa
Pudara = Pt - Puap = 67727,6 2336,6 = 65391 Pa
V = 15 x 10-6 m3
T = 20 + 273 = 293 K
Nudara = (Pudara V)/(RT)
= (65391 x 1,5 x 10-5)/(8315 x 293)
=4,03 x 10-7 kgmol

 Assume there are no dissolved gases in the product at the

time of sealing, therefore the only gases in the headspace
are air and water vapor. The vapor pressure of water at
20C and 80C are 2.3366 and 47.3601 kPa, respectively.
In the gas mixture in the headspace, air is assumed to
remain at the same quantity in the gaseous phase, while
water condenses on cooling

soal
Proses penutupan kaleng dilakukan pada suhu
80oC dan tekanan 1 atm. Di bagian headspace
hanya ada udara dan uap. Setelah dilakukan
sterilisasi, kaleng lalu didinginkan hingga suhu
20oC. Hitung berapa tekanan di headspace?
Diasumsikan jumlah udara di headspace tetap dan
uap air mengkondensasi pada saat pendinginan.

A gas mixture used for controlled atmosphere storage of vegetables contains 5%

CO2, 5% O2, and 90% N2. The mixture is generated by mixing appropriate quantities
of air and N2 and CO2 gases. 100 m3 of this mixture at 20oC and 1 atm is needed per
hour. Air contains 21% O2 and 79% N2. Calculate the volume at which the component
gases must be metered into the system in m3/h at 20oC and 1 atm.
All percentages are by volume. No volume changes occur on mixing of ideal
gases. Because volume percent in gases is the same as mole percent, material
balance equations may be made on the basis of volume and volume percentages.
Let X = volume O2, Y = volume CO2, and Z = volume N2, fed into the system per
hour.
Oxygen balance: 0.21(X) = 100(0.05); X = 23.8 m3
CO2 balance: Y = 0.05(100); Y = 5 m3
Total volumetric balance: X + Y + Z = 100
Z = 100 23.8 5 = 71.2 m3

Ruangan penyimpanan buah segar diatur sehingga komposisi gas yang masuk ke ruang
penyimpanan menjadi 88% N2, 6% O2 dan 6% CO2. Udara yang bersuhu 25oC tekanan 1 atm
mengalir ke dalam ruang penyimpanan dengan debit 80 m3/jam. Hitung kebutuhan udaranya
jika komposisi udara adalah 79% N2 dan 21% O2.

Campuran gas terdiri dari 5% CO2, 5% O2, and 90% N2 digunakan pada CAS untuk buah. Gas
campuran dibuat dengan mencampur udara, N2 dan CO2. Komposisi udara adalah 21% O2 and
79% N2. Gas campuran dibutuhkan sebanyak 100m3/jam. Hitung volume komponen gas yang
harus diatur kedalam CAS pada suhu 20oC dan tekanan 1 atm.

Semua persentase dalam bentuk volume, tidak ada perubahan volume dalam
pencampuran gas.
Persen volume sama dengan persen mol
Neraca massa total U +

Udara 1 m3 bertekanan 5 atm dijenuhkan dengan uap air pada suhu 50C. Jika udara
tersebut diturunkan tekanannya menjadi 1 atm dan suhu 20C, hitung jumlah uap air
yang mengkondensasi.
The vapor pressure of water at 50C and 20C are 12.3354 and 2.3366 kPa,
respectively.
Basis:1 m3 air at 5 atm pressure and 50C. The number of moles of air will remain
the same on cooling

Moles water condensed =

0.004593 - 0.004344 = 0.000249
kg moles.

Tekanan parsial uap air di udara pada 25C dan 1 atm adalah 2,520 kPa. Jika udara
ditekan hingga 5 atm pada suhu 35C, hitung tekanan parsial uap air di udara.
Increasing the total pressure of a gas mixture will proportionately increase the
partial pressure of each component
for the mixture and for the water vapor, let V1 = the volume of the gas mixture at
25C and 1 atm; Pt = total pressure; Pw = partial pressure of water vapor.
The total number of moles of air and water vapor is
Assuming no condensation, the ratio, nt/nw will be
the same in the low-pressure and high-pressure air,
therefore:

Temperature

Pressure

(C)
20
22
24
26
28
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
150
160

(kPa)
2.34
2.65
2.99
3.36
3.78
4.25
7.38
12.3
19.9
31.2
47.4
70.1
101.35
120.8
143.3
169.1
198.5
232.1
270.1
313.0
361.3
475.8
617.8

Enthalpy
(sat. vap.)
(kJ kg-1)
2538
2542
2545
2549
2553
2556
2574
2592
2610
2627
2644
2660
2676
2684
2692
2699
2706
2714
2721
2727
2734
2747
2758

Latent heat
(kJ kg-1)
2454
2449
2445
2440
2435
2431
2407
2383
2359
2334
2309
2283
2257
2244
2230
2217
2203
2189
2174
2160
2145
2114
2083

Specific
volume
(m3 kg-1)
57.8
51.4
45.9
40.0
36.6
32.9
19.5
12.0
7.67
5.04
3.41
2.36
1.673
1.42
1.21
1.04
0.892
0.771
0.669
0.582
0.509
0.393
0.307

PROPERTIES OF SATURATED AND

SUPERHEATED STEAM

Steam and water are the two most used heat transfer mediums in food processing.
Saturated Liquid:. Liquid water in equilibrium with its vapor. If the total pressure above a liquid equals
the vapor pressure, the liquid is at the boiling point.
Saturated Vapor: saturated steam and is vapor at the boiling temperature of the liquid. Lowering the
temperature of saturated steam at constant pressure by a small increment will cause vapor to condense
to liquid. The phase change is accompanied by a release of heat. If heat is removed from the system,
temperature and pressure will remain constant until all vapor is converted to liquid. Adding heat to the
system will change either temperature or pressure or both.
Vapor-Liquid Mixtures: Steam with less than 100% quality. Temperature and pressure correspond to the
boiling point; therefore, water could exist either as saturated liquid or saturated vapor. Addition of heat
will not change temperature and pressure until all saturated liquid is converted to vapor. Removing heat
from the system will also not change temperature and pressure until all vapor is converted to liquid.
Steam Quality: The percentage of a vapor-liquid mixture that is in the form of saturated vapor.
Interpolation: data

If 1 lb of water at 100 psig and 252F is allowed to expand to 14.7 psia, calculate
(a) the resulting temperature after expansion and (b) the quantity of vapor produced.

The absolute pressure= 100 + 14.7 = 114.7 psia. At 252F, water will not boil until the pressure is
reduced to 30.9 psia. The water therefore is at a temperature much below the boiling point at 114.7 psia
and it would have the properties of liquid water at 252F.
(a) After expansion to 14.7 psia, the boiling point at 14.7 psia is 212F. Part of the water will flash
to water vapor at 212F and the remaining liquid will also be at 212F.
(b) The enthalpy of water at 252F is (hf at 252F) 220.62 BTU/lb.
Basis: 1 lb H2O. Heat content = 220.62 BTU. When pressure is reduced to 14.7 psia, some vapor will
be formed, but the total heat content of both vapor and liquid at 212F and 14.7 psia will still be 220.62
BTU.

How much heat would be given off by cooling steam at 252F and
30.883 psia to
248F, at the same pressure?

First, check the state of water at 30.883 psia and 252F and 248F. From steam tables, the
boiling point of water at 30.883 psia is 252F. Therefore, steam at 252F and 30.883 psia is
saturated vapor.
At 30.883 psia and 248F, water will be in the liquid state, because 248F is below the boiling
temperature at 30.883 psia.
Heat given off = q = hg at 252F hf at 248F
From steam tables,
hg at 252F = 1164.78 BTU/lb
hf at 248F = 216.56 BTU/lb
q = 1164.78 216.56 = 948.22 BTU/lb
Saturated steam is a very efficient heat transfer medium. Note that for only a 4F change in
temperature, 948 BTU/lb of steam is given off. The heat content of saturated vapors come
primarily from the latent heat of vaporization, and it is possible to extract this heat simply by
causing a phase change at constant temperature and pressure.

Superheated Steam Tables

Superheated Steam: Water vapor at a temperature higher than the boiling point.
The number of degrees the temperature exceeds the boiling temperature is the
degrees superheat. Addition of heat to superheated steam could increase the
superheat at constant pressure or change both the pressure and temperature at
constant volume. Removing heat will allow the temperature to drop to the boiling
temperature where the temperature will remain constant until all the vapor has
condensed.
A superheated steam table: Both temperature and absolute pressure must be
specified to accurately define the degree of superheat.
From the temperature and absolute pressure, the specific volume v in ft3/lb and
the enthalpy h in BTU/lb can be read from the table

How much heat is required to convert 1 lb of water at 70F to

steam at 14.696 psia
and 250F?

First determine the state of steam at 14.696 psia and

250F. At 14.696 psia, the boiling point is 212F. Steam
at 250F and 14.696 psia is superheated steam. From
the superheated steam table, h at 250F is 1168.8
BTU/lb.
Heat required = hg at 250F and 14.696 psia hf at
70F
= 1168.8 BTU/lb 38.05 BTU/lb
= 1130.75 BTU/lb

How much heat would be given off by cooling superheated steam at

14.696 psia
and 500F to 250F at the same pressure?

Basis: 1 lb of steam.
Heat given off = q = h at 14.696 psia and 500F
hg at 14.696 psia and 250F
= 1287.4 1168.8 = 118.6 BTU/lb
Superheated steam is not a very efficient heating
medium. Note that a 250F change in temperature
is accompanied by the extraction of only 118.6
BTUs of heat.

Soal
Campuran gas terdiri dari 5% CO2, 5% O2, and 90% N2 digunakan
pada CAS untuk buah. Gas tersebut dibuat dengan mencampur
udara, N2 dan CO2. Komposisi udara adalah 21% O2 and 79% N2.
CAS membutuhkan gas campuran sebanyak 100m 3/jam. Hitung
volume komponen gas yang harus diatur kedalam CAS pada suhu
20oC dan tekanan 1 atm.
Campuran Udara dan uap air 1 m3 bertekanan 5 atm absolut
bersuhu 50oC. Jika udara tersebut diturunkan tekanannya menjadi 1
atm dan suhu 20oC, hitung jumlah uap air yang mengkondensasi

Harap dikerjakan

Proses produksi Sodium Sitrat (Na2C6H6O7) dilakukan dengan mereaksikan larutan asam
sitrat (C6H8O7) 10%(berat) dengan NaOH. Larutan Sodium sitrat yang terbentuk dipekatkan
sehingga diperoleh larutan dengan konsentrasi 30% berat. Larutan lalu didinginkan pada
suhu 15oC untuk mengkristalkan sodium sitrat. Jika kelarutan sodium sitrat pada suhu 15oC
sebesar 20% berat, hitung kristal sodium sitrat yang diperoleh, untuk setiap 100 kg larutan
asam sitrat yang digunakan.

Asumsi : - Sodium sitrat dalam bentuk anhydrous

Berat atom O : 16; C : 12; H : 1; Na : 23
Reaksi berlangsung secara sempurna

Ekstraksi menggunakan supercritical CO2 beroperasi pada tekanan 30 MPa dan suhu 60oC
di wadah ekstraksi (extraction chamber). Debit gas CO2 meninggalkan ekstraktor pada
tekanan 101,3 kPa dan suhu 20oC sebesar 10 L/menit. Hitung waktu tinggal (residence time)
dari CO2 dalam extraction chamber jika diketahui chamber berbentuk tabung dengan
diameter 5 cm dan tinggi 45 cm. Waktu tinggal adalah volume chamber/debit gas dalam
chamber.

Temperature

Pressure

(C)
20
22
24
26
28
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
150
160

(kPa)
2.34
2.65
2.99
3.36
3.78
4.25
7.38
12.3
19.9
31.2
47.4
70.1
101.35
120.8
143.3
169.1
198.5
232.1
270.1
313.0
361.3
475.8
617.8

Enthalpy
(sat. vap.)
(kJ kg-1)
2538
2542
2545
2549
2553
2556
2574
2592
2610
2627
2644
2660
2676
2684
2692
2699
2706
2714
2721
2727
2734
2747
2758

Latent heat
(kJ kg-1)
2454
2449
2445
2440
2435
2431
2407
2383
2359
2334
2309
2283
2257
2244
2230
2217
2203
2189
2174
2160
2145
2114
2083

Specific
volume
(m3 kg-1)
57.8
51.4
45.9
40.0
36.6
32.9
19.5
12.0
7.67
5.04
3.41
2.36
1.673
1.42
1.21
1.04
0.892
0.771
0.669
0.582
0.509
0.393
0.307

Heat
Sensible heat is defined as the energy transferred between two bodies at different
temperatures, or the energy present in a body by virtue of its temperature.
Latent heat is the energy associated with phase transitions, heat of fusion, from
solid to liquid, and heat of vaporization, from liquid to vapor.
Enthalpy, is an intrinsic property, the absolute value of which cannot be measured
directly.
However, if a reference state is chosen for all components that enter and leave a
system such that at this state the enthalpy is considered to be zero, then the
change in enthalpy from the reference state to the current state of a component
can be considered as the value of the absolute enthalpy for the system under
consideration.
The reference temperature (Tref) for determining the enthalpy of water in the
steam tables is 32.018F or 0.01C.

Specific Heat
The specific heat (Cp) is the amount of heat that
accompanies a unit change in temperature for a
unit mass.
The specific heat, which varies with temperature, is
more variable for gases compared with liquids or
solids.
Most solids and liquids have a constant specific
heat over a fairly wide temperature range.

specific heat

J/(kg K)

Estimation of Cp
Cavg = 3349M+ 837.36 in J/(kg K) for fat free plant material
Cavg = 1674.72 F + 837.36 SNF + 4l86.8M in J/(kg K)
the mass fraction fat (F), mass fraction solids non-fat (SNF),
and mass fraction moisture (M)
Example: Calculate the heat required to raise the
temperature of a 4.535 kg roast beef containing 15% protein,
20% fat, and 65% water from 4.44C to 65.55C
Solution:
Cavg = 0.15(837.36) + 0.2(1674.72) + 0.65(4186.8) = 3182 J/
(kg K)
q = 4.535 kg[3182 J/(kg K)] (65.55 4.44)K = 0.882 MJ

Specific heat of gas and vapor

whereCpm is mean specific heat from the reference temperature To to
T1. Tabulated values for the mean specific heat of gases are based
on ambient temperature of 77F or 25C, as the reference
temperature.

Contoh
Hitung kebutuhan panas untuk menaikkan suhu
udara pengering pd tekanan 1 atm dari suhu ruang
25oC ke suhu pengeringan 50oC jika tiap menit
dialirkan udara sebanyak 100m 3
q= mCp (50-25)
m=PVM/RT
R = 0.08206 m3 atm/kg mole K

PROPERTIES OF SATURATED AND

SUPERHEATED STEAM

Steam and water are the two most used heat transfer mediums in food processing. Water is also a major component of food
products. The steam tables that list the properties of steam are a very useful reference when determining heat exchange
involving a food product and steam or water. At temperatures above the freezing point, water can exist in either of the following
forms.
Saturated Liquid:. Liquid water in equilibrium with its vapor. The total pressure above the liquid must be equal to or be higher
than the vapor pressure. If the total pressure above the liquid exceeds the vapor pressure, some other gas is present in the
atmosphere above the liquid. If the total pressure above a liquid equals the vapor pressure, the liquid is at the boiling point.
Saturated Vapor: This is also known as saturated steam and is vapor at the boiling temperature of the liquid. Lowering the
temperature of saturated steam at constant pressure by a small increment will cause vapor to condense to liquid. The phase
change is accompanied by a release of heat. If heat is removed from the system, temperature and pressure will remain
constant until all vapor is converted to liquid. Adding heat to the system will change either temperature or pressure or both.
Vapor-Liquid Mixtures: Steam with less than 100% quality. Temperature and pressure correspond to the boiling point;
therefore, water could exist either as saturated liquid or saturated vapor. Addition of heat will not change temperature and
pressure until all saturated liquid is converted to vapor. Removing heat from the system will also not change temperature and
pressure until all vapor is converted to liquid.
Steam Quality: The percentage of a vapor-liquid mixture that is in the form of saturated vapor.
Superheated Steam: Water vapor at a temperature higher than the boiling point. The number of degrees the temperature
exceeds the boiling temperature is the degrees superheat. Addition of heat to superheated steam could increase the
superheat at constant pressure or change both the pressure and temperature at constant volume. Removing heat will allow
the temperature to drop to the boiling temperature where the temperature will remain constant until all the vapor has
condensed.

Steam table
The saturated steam table consists of entries under the headings of
temperature, absolute pressure, specific volume, and enthalpy.

Temperature

Pressure

(C)
20
22
24
26
28
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
150
160

(kPa)
2.34
2.65
2.99
3.36
3.78
4.25
7.38
12.3
19.9
31.2
47.4
70.1
101.35
120.8
143.3
169.1
198.5
232.1
270.1
313.0
361.3
475.8
617.8

Enthalpy
(sat. vap.)
(kJ kg-1)
2538
2542
2545
2549
2553
2556
2574
2592
2610
2627
2644
2660
2676
2684
2692
2699
2706
2714
2721
2727
2734
2747
2758

Latent heat
(kJ kg-1)
2454
2449
2445
2440
2435
2431
2407
2383
2359
2334
2309
2283
2257
2244
2230
2217
2203
2189
2174
2160
2145
2114
2083

Specific
volume
(m3 kg-1)
57.8
51.4
45.9
40.0
36.6
32.9
19.5
12.0
7.67
5.04
3.41
2.36
1.673
1.42
1.21
1.04
0.892
0.771
0.669
0.582
0.509
0.393
0.307

contoh
Pada tekanan vakum berapa sehingga air mendidih pada suhu 80 oC,
nyatakan dalam kPa dan dalam cm Hg
Lihat tabel uap= 47,4 kPa abs
Tekanan vakum = 101 - 47,4 = 53,6 kPa
Tekanan vakum = (53,6/101) x 76 = 40,3 cmHg

Sterilisasi dilakukan pada suhu 120oC, berapa tekanan yang terbaca

pada manometer yang menggunakan satuan psi?
Dari tabel pada suhu 120oC tekanan uap = 198,5 kPa, maka tekanan pada
manometer = 198,5 101 = 97,5 kPa
1 atm = 14,7 psi = 101 kPa
Tekanan pada manometer = (97,5/101) x 14,7 = 14,2 psig

Freezing Points of Food Products Unmodified

from the Natural State

the heat to be removed during freezing of a food

product : sensible heat and latent heat.
determining the amount of heat by calculating the
enthalpy change.
calculating enthalpy change below the freezing
point (good only for moisture contents between
73% and 94%) is the procedure of Chang and Tao
(1981). In this correlation, it is assumed that all
water is frozen at 227 K (50 F).

Calculate the freezing point and the amount of heat that must
be removed in order to freeze 1 kg of grape juice containing
25% solids from the freezing point to 30 C.

Solution:
Y = 0.75.
for juices: Tf = 120.47 + 327.35(0.75) 176.49(0.75)2 = 266.7 K
Hf = 9792.46 + 405,096(0.75) = 313, 614 J
a = 0.362 + 0.0498(0.02) 3.465(0.02)2 = 0.3616
b = 27.2 129.04(0.1316) 481.46(0.1316)2 = 1.879
Tr = (30 + 273 227.6)/(266.7 227.6) = 0.394
H = 313,614[(0.3616)0.394 + (1 0.3616)(0.394)1.879 ]= 79, 457 J/kg
The enthalpy change from Tf to 30 C is
H = 313,614 79, 457 = 234, 157 J/kg