FLUID

MECHANICS

UNIT-1

Fluid statics:

Dimensions and
units: physical properties of fluidsspecific gravity, viscosity surface
tension- vapor pressure and their
influence on fluid motion- atmospheric
gauge and vacuum pressure
measurement of pressure- Piezometer,
U-tube and differential manometers

Branches of Mechanics:
Mechanics

Solid Mech.

Rigid
Body
Mech.

Mech. of
Deformable
Bodies

Statics

Dynamics

Kinematics

Fluid Mech.

Fluid
Statics

Kinetics

Fluid
Kinematics

Fluid
Dynamics

 Fluid Statics deals with action of forces on fluids at

rest or in equilibrium.
Fluid Kinematics deals with geometry of motion of
fluids without considering the cause of motion.
Fluid dynamics deals with the motion of fluids
considering the cause of motion.
Properties of fluids:
1. Mass density or Specific mass ():
Mass density or specific mass is the mass per unit volume
of the fluid.
Mass

Volume

M
dM

or
V
dV

Unit: kg/m3 or kgm3

 With the increase in temperature volume of fluid increases

and hence mass density decreases.
In case of fluids as the pressure increases volume
decreases and hence mass density increases.
2. Weight density or Specific weight ():
Weight density or Specific weight of a fluid is the
weight per unit volume.
Weight

Volume

W
dW
or
V
dV
Unit: N/m3 or Nm-3.

With increase in temperature volume increases and hence

specific weight decreases.
With increases in pressure volume decreases and hence
specific weight increases.
Note: Relationship between mass density and weight
density:
Weight
We have = Volume
Weight

Volume

=xg

3. Specific gravity or Relative density (S):

It is the ratio of specific weight of the fluid to the specific
weight of a standard fluid.

of fluid
S=
of standard fluid
Unit: It is a dimensionless quantity and has no unit.
In case of liquids water at 4oC is considered as standard liquid.
(specific weight) of water at 4 0C (standard liquid) is
9.81 kN or 9.81 x 103 kN
m3

m3

1.

s tan dard

S x s tan dard

2.

S
S

s tan dard
xg
s tan dard x g

s tan dard

Specific gravity or relative density of a fluid can also be

defined as the ratio of mass density of the fluid to mass
density of the standard fluid. Mass density of standard water
is 1000 kg/m3. S x s tan dard

4 Specific volume (v): It is the volume per unit mass of

the fluid.
Volume
=
mass

V
dV
= or
M dM

Unit: m3/kg
As the temperature increases volume increases and
hence specific volume increases. As the pressure
increases volume decreases and hence specific volume
decreases.

Problems:
1. Calculate specific weight, mass density, specific volume
and specific gravity of a liquid having a volume of 4m3
and weighing 29.43 kN. Assume missing data suitably.

W

V
3
29.43 X 10

4
3
= 7357.58 N/m

?
?
?
S?
V 4 m3
W 29.43 kN
29.43 x 10 3 N

To find - Method 1:
W mg

Method 2 :
29.43 x 10 3 m x 9.81
m 3000 kg
m 3000

v
4
750 kg / m 3

g
7357.5 9.81
750 kg / m 3

V
i)
M
4

3000
1.33 x 10 3 m 3 / kg

V
M

1
1

750

S tan dard

S 0.75

M
V

1.33 X 10 3 m 3 / kg

7357.5

9810

S tan daard

or
S

750
1000

S 0.75

2. Calculate specific weight, density, specific volume and

specific gravity and if one liter of Petrol weighs 6.867N.
W
V

V 1 Litre

6.867
10 3

V 10 3 m 3

6867 N / m 3
S

S tan dard

6867
9810

S 0.7

V
M
3

10
0 .7
1.4 x10 3 m3 / kg

W 6.867 N
s g
6867 x 9.81
700kg / m 3
M 6.867 9.81
M 0.7 kg

3. Specific gravity of a liquid is 0.7 Find i) Mass density ii)

specific weight. Also find the mass and weight of 10
Liters of liquid.

S 0.7
V?

6867 x 9.81

S tan dard

0.7
9810
6867 N / m

700 kg / m 3

M?
W ?
V 10 litre
10x10 3 m 3

S tan dard

W
V

0.7
1000

W
6867 2
10

700kg / m 3

W 68.67 N

M
V

M
700
10 x10 3
M 7 kg

or
Wmg
7 x 9.81
W 68.67 N

Vapour Pressure: The process by which the molecules of

the liquid go out of its surface in the form of vapour is
called Vapourisation.
There are two ways of causing Vapourisation.
a. By increasing the temperature of the liquid to its
boiling points.
b. By reducing the pressure above the surface of the
liquid to a value less than Vapour pressure of the
liquid.

As the pressure above the surface of the liquid is reduced, at

some point, there will be vapourisation of the liquid. If the
reduction in pressure is continued vapourisation will also
continue.
If the reduction in pressure is stopped,
vapourisation continues until vapours of the liquid exert
certain pressure which will just stop the vapourisation. This
minimum partial pressure exerted by the vapours of the liquid
just to stop vapourisation is called Vapour Pressure of the
liquid.
If the pressure over the surface goes below the vapour
pressure, then, there will be vapourisation. But if the
pressure above the surface is more than the vapour
pressure there will not be vapourisation unless there is
heating.

Importance of Vapour Pressure:

1. In case of Hydraulic turbines sometimes pressure goes
below the vapour pressure of the liquid. This leads to
vapourisation and formation of bubbles of liquid. When
bubbles are carried to high Pressure zone they get busted
leaving partial vacuum. Surrounding liquid enters this
space with very high velocity exerting large force on the
part of the machinery. This process is called cavitation.
Turbines are designed such that there is no cavitation.
2. In Carburetors and sprayers vapours of liquid are created
by reducing the pressure below vapour pressure of the
liquid.
Unit of Vapour Pressure: N/m2 (Pascal - Pa)
Vapour Pressure of a fluid increases with increase in
temperature.

Problem
1. A vertical cylinder 300mm in diameter is fitted at the top
with a tight but frictionless piston and filled with water at
700 C. The outer portion of the piston is exposed to
atmospheric Pressure of 101.3 kPa. Calculate the
minimum force applied on the piston that will cause water
to boil at 700 C. Take Vapour Pressure of water at 700 C
as 32k Pa.

D = 300 mm
= 0.3 m
F Should be applied such that the Pressure is reduced
from 101.3kPa to 32kPa. There fore reduction in
Pressure required
= 101.3 32
= 69.3 kPa
= 69.3 x 103 N/m2
F / Area
= 69.3 x 103

F
x (0.3) 2 = 69.3 x 103
4
F = 4.9 x 103N
F = 4.9 kN

Viscosity:
Viscosity is the property by virtue of which fluid
offers resistance against the flow or shear deformation. In
other words, it is the reluctance of the fluid to flow. Viscous
force is that force of resistance offered by a layer of fluid for
the motion of another layer over it.
In case of liquids, viscosity is due to cohesive force
between the molecules of adjacent layers of liquid. In case
of gases, molecular activity between adjacent layers is the
cause of viscosity.

Newtons law of viscosity:

Let us consider a liquid between the fixed plate and
the movable plate at a distance Y apart , A is the contact
area (Wetted area ) of the movable plate , F is the force
required to move the plate with a velocity U According to
Newton

F A
F

1
Y

FU
F

AU
Y

AU
Y

is the constant of proportionality called Dynamic

Viscosity or Absolute Viscosity or Coefficient of Viscosity or
Viscosity of the fluid.
F
U
.
A
Y

U
Y

is the force required; Per Unit area called Shear Stress.

The above equation is called Newtons law of viscosity.

Velocity gradient or rate of shear strain:

It is the difference in velocity per unit distance
between any two layers.
If the velocity profile is linear then velocity
gradient is given by U/Y. If the velocity profile is
non linear then it is given by du
.
dy
Unit of force (F): N.
Unit of distance between the twp plates (Y): m
Unit of velocity (U): m/s
U m/s
Unit of velocity gradient : Y m / s s
u
.
Unit of dynamic viscosity (): y
1

y
U
N / m2 . m

m/s
NS
2 or Pa S
m

NOTE:
In CGS system unit of dynamic viscosity is
dyne . S
and is called poise (P).
Cm
If the value of is given in poise, multiply it by
0.1 to get it in mNS.
1 Centipoises = 10-2 Poise.
2

 Effect of Pressure on Viscosity of fluids:

Pressure has very little or no effect on the viscosity
of fluids.
Effect of Temperature on Viscosity of fluids:
1. Effect of temperature on viscosity of liquids:
Viscosity of liquids is due to cohesive force
between the molecules of adjacent layers. As the
temperature increases cohesive force decreases
and hence viscosity decreases.
1. Effect of temperature on viscosity of gases:
Viscosity of gases is due to molecular activity
between adjacent layers. As the temperature
increases molecular activity increases and hence
viscosity increases.

Kinematics Viscosity: It is the ratio of dynamic

viscosity of the fluid to its mass density.
KinematicVis cos ity

Unit of KV:

KV

NS / m 2

kg / m 3
NS m 3
2 x
m
kg
s m3
kg m

x 2x
m2 / s
2
s m kg

F ma
N Kg .m / s 2

KinematicVis cos ity m 2 / s

NOTE: Unit of kinematics Viscosity in CGS system is cm2/s and

is called stoke (S)
If the value of KV is given in stoke, multiply it by 10-4 to
convert it into m2/s.Far

Problems:
1. Viscosity of water is 0.01 poise. Find its
kinematics viscosity if specific gravity is 0.998.

2. A Plate at a distance 0.0254mm from a fixed plate

moves at 0.61m/s and requires a force of 1.962N/m2
area of plate. Determine dynamic viscosity of liquid
between the plates.

1.962 x

0.61
0.0254 x 10 3

8.17 x 10 5

NS
m2

3. A plate having an area of 1m2 is dragged down an

inclined plane at 450 to horizontal with a velocity of
0.5m/s due to its own weight. Three is a cushion of liquid
1mm thick between the inclined plane and the plate. If
viscosity of oil is 0.1 PaS find the weight of the plate.

4. A shaft of 20mm and mass 15kg slides vertically

in a sleeve with a velocity of 5 m/s. The gap
between the shaft and the sleeve is 0.1mm and is
filled with oil. Calculate the viscosity of oil if the
length of the shaft is 500mm.

5. If the equation of velocity profile over 2 plate is V=

2y2/3. in which V is the velocity in m/s and y is the
distance in m . Determine shear stress at (i) y = 0 (ii)
y = 75mm. Take = 8.35P.

6. A circular disc of 0.3m dia and weight 50 N is kept on

an inclined surface with a slope of 450. The space
between the disc and the surface is 2 mm and is filled
with oil of dynamics viscosity 1mNS . What force will be
required to pull the disk up the inclined plane with a
velocity of 0.5m/s.
2

7. Dynamic viscosity of oil used for lubrication between a

shaft and a sleeve is 6 P. The shaft is of diameter 0.4
m and rotates at 190 rpm. Calculate the power lost in
the bearing for a sleeve length of 0.09 m .Thickness of
oil is 1.5 mm.

DN
60
x 0.4 x 190
60

T Fx R
175.01x 0.2

U 3.979 m / s

T 35 Nm

U
.
Y
0.6 x

3.979
1.5 x 10 3

2NT
P
60,000

1.592 x 10 3 N / m 2
F
1.59 x 10 3
A
F 1.591 x 10 3 x 0.11
F 175.01 N

P 0.6964KW
P 696.4 W

8. Two large surfaces are 2.5 cm apart. This space is

filled with glycerin of absolute viscosity 0.82 NS/m 2.
Find what force is required to drag a plate of area
0.5m2 between the two surfaces at a speed of
0.6m/s. (i) When the plate is equidistant from the
surfaces, (ii) when the plate is at 1cm from one of the
surfaces.
Case (i):

Let F1 be the force required to overcome viscosity

resistance of liquid above the plate and F2 be the
force required to overcome viscous resistance of
liquid below the plate. In this case F1 = F2. Since the
liquid is same on either side or the plate is equidistant
from the surfaces.
1 1

U
Y

1 0.82 x

0.6
0.0125

1 39.36 N / m 2
F1
39.36
A
F1 19.68 N

Total force required to drag the plate

=F1 +F2 = 19.68+19.68
F= 39.36N

Case (ii):

U
1 1
y1
0.82 x

F1
49.2
A
0.62
1 x 10 2

2
1 49.2 N / m

2 2

U
y2

0.82 x

F1 49.2 x 0.5
F1 24.6 N

F2
32.8
A
0.6
1.5 x 10 2

2
1 32.8 N / m

F 2 32.8x 0.5
F 2 16.4 N

Total Force F = F1 + F2
= 24.6 + 16.4
F = 41N

9. Through a very narrow gap of ht a thin plate of large

extent is pulled at a velocity `V. On one side of the
plate is oil of viscosity 1 and on the other side there
is oil of viscosity 2. Determine the position of the
plate for the following conditions.
i. Shear stress on the two sides of the plate is equal.
ii. The pull required, to drag the plate is minimum.
Condition (i):

y ? for F 1 F 2

U
Y

A1V
hy

F
U
.
A
Y
F A .

F1

F2

F1 F 2

A 2 V
y

1y 2 (h y)

U
Y

A V

1y 2 y 2 h

(h y )
A V
2

2h

ory 1
1
1 2
2

Condition (ii):

y ? if , F1 F 2 is to be min imum
A1V

F1
hy
F
2

A 2 V
y

Total drag forced required

Surface Tension ()

Surface tension is due to cohesion between the

molecules of liquid and weak adhesion between
the molecules on the exposed surface of the liquid
and molecules of air.

A molecule inside the surface gets attracted by equal

forces from the surrounding molecules whereas a
molecule on the surface gets attracted by the molecule
below it. Since there are no molecules above it, if
experiences an unbalanced vertically downward force.
Due to this entire surface of the liquid expose to air will
have a tendency to move in ward and hence the
surface will be under tension. The property of the liquid
surface to offer resistance against tension is called
surface tension.
Consequences of Surface tension:
Liquid surface supports small loads
Formation of spherical droplets of liquid
Formation of spherical bubbles of liquid
Formation of cylindrical jet of liquids

Measurement of surface tension:

Surface tension is measured as the force exerted by

the film on a line of unit length on the surface of the
liquid. It can also be defined as the force required
maintaining unit length of film in equilibrium.

Unit: N/m

F
L

F L

Force due to surface tension = x length of film

NOTE: Force experienced by a curved surface due to

radial pressure is given by the product of intensity of
pressure and projected area of the curved surface.

To derive an expression for the pressure inside

the droplet of a liquid.

Let us consider droplet of liquid of surface tension

. D is the diameter of the droplet. Let p be
the pressure inside the droplet in excess of outside
pressure (p = pinside poutside).

For the equilibrium of the part of the droplet,

Force due to surface tension = Force due to pressure
x D

x D

p x projected area
D 2
px
4
4
D

As the diameter increases pressure decreases.

To derive an expression for the pressure inside
the bubble of liquid:
`D is the diameter of bubble of liquid of surface
tension . Let p be the pressure inside the bubble
which is in excess of outside pressure. In case of
bubble the liquid layer will be in contact with air both
inside and outside.

For the equilibrium of the part of the bubble,

Force due to surface tension = Force due to
pressure
2 ( x D) = p x projected area
D 2
2 x D p x
4
8
p
D

To derive an expression for the pressure inside the

jet of liquid:

Let us consider a jet of diameter D of liquid of surface

tension and p is the intensity of pressure inside the
jet in excess of outside atmospheric pressure. For the
equilibrium of the part of the jet shown in fig

Force due to Radial pressure = Force due to surface

tension
p x Projected area
= x Length
pxDxL
= x 2L
2
P
D

Effect of temperature on surface tension of liquids:

In case of liquids, surface tension decreases
with increase in temperature. Pressure has no or
very little effect on surface tension of liquids.

Problems:
1. What is the pressure inside the droplet of water
0.05mm in diameter at 200C, if the pressure outside
the droplet is 103 kPa Take = 0.0736 N/m at 200C
p

4
D

4 x 0.0736
0.05x10 3

p 5.888x10 3 N / m 3

p inside ?
D 0.05x10 3 m
p outside 103kPa

p p inside p outside
p inside (5.888 103)103
p inside 108.88x10 3 Pa

103x103 N / m 2
0.0736 N / m

2. A liquid bubble 2cm in radius has an internal

pressure of 13Pa. Calculate the surface tension of
liquid film.

8
p
D
2
13x 4x10

8
0.065N / m

R 2cm
D 4cm
2

4x10 m
p 13Pa ( N / m )
2

Capillarity:

Any liquid between contact surfaces attains curved

shaped surface as shown in figure. The curved
surface of the liquid is called Meniscus. If adhesion
is more than cohesion then the meniscus will be
concave. If cohesion is greater than adhesion
meniscus will be convex.

Capillarity is the phenomena by which liquids will rise or fall in a tube

of small diameter dipped in them. Capillarity is due to cohesion
adhesion and surface tension of liquids. If adhesion is more than
cohesion then there will be capillary rise. If cohesion is greater than
adhesion then will be capillary fall or depression. The surface tensile
force supports capillary rise or depression.

The angle between surface tensile force and the vertical is called angle of
contact. If adhesion is more than cohesion then angle of contact is obtuse.

To derive an expression for the capillary rise of a

liquid in small tube dipped in it:
Let us consider a small tube of diameter D
dipped in a liquid of specific weight . h is the
capillary rise. For the equilibrium,
Vertical force due to surface tension = Weight of
column of liquid ABCD

 (D) cos x volume

D 2
(D) cos x
xh
4
h

4 cos
D

It can be observed that the capillary rise is inversely

proportional to the diameter of the tube.
Note:
The same equation can be used to calculate
capillary depression. In such cases will be obtuse
h works out to be ve.

Problems:
1. Capillary tube having an inside diameter 5mm is
dipped in water at 200. Determine the heat of water
which will rise in tube. Take =0.0736N/m at 200 C.

4 cos
h
D
4 x 0.0736 x cos

9810 x 5 x 10 3
h 6 x 10 3 m

0 0 (assumed)
9810 N / m

2. Calculate capillary rise in a glass tube when

immersed in Hg at 200c. Assume for Hg at 200c as
0.51N/m. The diameter of the tube is 5mm. = 1300c.
4 cos
h
D

S tan dard

13.6

h 1.965 x 10 3 m

9810

133.416 x 103 N / m 3

-ve sign indicates capillary depression.

3. Determine the minimum size of the glass tubing that

can be used to measure water level if capillary rise
is not to exceed 2.5mm. Take = 0.0736 N/m.
h

4 cos
D
4 x 0.0736 x cos 0
9810 x 2.5 x 10 3

D?
h 2.5x10 3 m

D 0.012 m
D 12 mm

0.0736 N / m

4. A glass tube 0.25mm in diameter contains Hg

column with air above it. If = 0.51N/m, what will be
the capillary depression? Take = - 400 or 1400.
4 cos
h
D

D 0.25x10 3 m
0.51N / m

4x 0.51x cos140

133.146 x10 3 x 0.25x10 3

h 46.851x10 3 m

140
133.416 x 10 3 N / m 2

5. If a tube is made so that one limb is 20mm in and

the other 2mm in and water is poured in the tube,
what is the difference in the level of surface of liquid
in the two limbs. = 0.073 N/m for water.

4 cos
h1 h
D

4 x 0.073 x cos o
9810 x (20 x 10 3 )

h h1 h 2
0.01339m

0.01488m
4 x 0.073x cos o
h2
9810 x (20 x 10 3 )

h 13.39mm

1.488 x 10 3 m

Compressibility:
It is the property by virtue of which there will be
change in volume of fluid due to change in
pressure.

Let v be the original volume and dv be the change in

volume due to change in pressure dp , dvv i.e., the
ratio of change in volume to original volume is called
volumetric strain or bulk strain.
The ratio of change in pressure to the
volumetric strain produced is called Bulk modulus of
elasticity of the fluid and is denoted by K
K

dp
dv

dp
dv

Sometimes K is written as K =
. ve sign
indicates that as there is increase in pressure, there
is decrease in volume. Reciprocal of Bulk modulus of
elasticity is called compressibility of the fluid.

dv
1
compressib ility
v
K dp

Unit of Bulk modulus of elasticity is N/m 2 or Pa. Unit of

compressibility is m2/N.
Problem:
1. The change in volume of certain mass of liquids is
1
observed to be 500
th of original volume when
pressure on it is increased by 5Mpa. Determine the
Bulk modulus and compressibility of the liquid.
dv

1
V
500

dv
1

v 500
dp 5 x 10 6 N / m 2

dp
dv
v

2.5 x 10 9 Pa
K 2.5 GPa

Compresibility

1
25 x 108

4 x 10 10 m 2 / N

1
K

1. Find the pressure that must be applied to water at

atmospheric pressure to reduce its volume by
1%.Take K=2 GPa.
K

2 x 10 9

dp
dv
v
dP
1
100

dp 20 x 10 6 N / m 2
dp 20 MPa

Rheological classification of fluids: (Rheology

Study of stress strain behavior).
1. Newtonian fluids: A fluid which obeys Newtons
law of viscosity i.e.,
is called Newtonian fluid.
In such fluids shear stress varies directly as shear
strain.
In this case the stress strain curve is a stress
line passing through origin the slope of the line
gives dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
Eg: Water, Kerosene.

2. Non- Newtonian fluid: A fluid which does not obey

Newtons law of viscosity is called non-Newton fluid.
For such fluids,

du

dy

3. Ideal Plastic fluids:

In this case the strain starts after certain initial stress
(0) and then the stress-strain relationship will be
linear. 0 is called initial yield stress. Sometimes they
are also called Binghams Plastics:
Eg: Industrial sludge.

4. Thixotropic fluids:
These require certain amount of yield stress to
initiate shear strain. After wards stress-strain
relationship will be non linear.
Eg: Printers ink.

5. Ideal fluid:
Any fluid for which viscosity is assumed to be zero
is called Ideal fluid. For ideal fluid = 0 for all
values of du
dy

6. Real fluid :
Any fluid which posses certain viscosity is called
real fluid. It can be Newtonian or non Newtonian,
thixotropic or ideal plastic.
Thixotropic

PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENTS

Fluid is a state of matter which exhibits the property

of flow. When a certain mass of fluids is held in static
equilibrium by confining it within solid boundaries, it
exerts force along direction perpendicular to the
boundary in contact. This force is called fluid
pressure.

Pressure distribution:
It is the variation of pressure over the boundary in
contact with the fluid.
There are two types of pressure distribution.
a. Uniform Pressure distribution.
b. Non-Uniform Pressure distribution.
a. Uniform Pressure distribution:

If the force exerted by the fluid is same at all the

points of contact boundary then the pressure
distribution is said to be uniform.

b. Non Uniform Pressure distribution:

If the force exerted by the fluid is not same at all the

points then the pressure distribution is said to be
non-uniform.

 Intensity of pressure or unit pressure or

Pressure:
Intensity of pressure at a point is defined as the
force exerted over unit area considered around that
point. If the pressure distribution is uniform then
intensity of pressure will be same at all the points.
Calculation of Intensity of Pressure:
When the pressure distribution is uniform, intensity
of pressure at any points is given by the ratio of
total force to the total area of the boundary in
contact.

Intensity of Pressure p = F/A

When the pressure distribution is non- uniform,
then intensity of pressure at a point is given by
dF/dA
Unit of Intensity of Pressure:
N/m2 or pascal (Pa).
Note: 1 MPa =1N/mm2

 To study the variation of intensity of pressure in

a static mass of fluid: or derive hydrostatic law
of pressure.

Let us consider a point M at a depth y below

the free surface of the liquid of specific weight . (dx
dy dz) is the elemental volume of the fluid considered
around the point M.
Fig shows forces acting on the element including
self weight. The element of fluid is in equilibrium and
hence we can apply conditions of equilibrium.
Fx 0

p dx
p dx
p
. dy dz P
. dy dz 0

x
2

x
2

i, e p

p dx
p dx
. p
.
0
x 2
x 2
2.

P dx
. 0
x 2

P
0
x

Rate of change of intensity of pressure along x

direction is zero. In other words there is no change in
intensity of pressure along x direction inside the fluid.
Fz 0

p dz
p dz
p
. dx dy p
. 0 dx dy 0
z 2
z 2

p
0
z

The Rate of change of intensity of pressure along z

direction is zero.
In other words there is no change in intensity of
pressure along z direction.

 Fy 0

p dy
p dy
p
. dx dz p
. dx dz dx dy dz 0

y
2

y
2

i.e. p

i, e

p dy
P dy
. p
. dy
y 2
y 2

p
dy dy
y

p

y

-ve sign indicates that the pressure increases in the

downward direction i.e., as the depth below the
surface increases intensity of pressure increases.

y
p .oy
integrating,
p y C

at y = 0; p =
pAtmospheric
patm = x0
+C
C = patm
The above equation is p
called
hydrostatic
law of pressure.
=
y
+patm

Atmospheric pressure
Air above the surface of liquids exerts pressure
on the exposed surface of the liquid and normal to
the surface.
This pressure exerted by the atmosphere is
called atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure
at a place depends on the elevation of the place and
the temperature.
Atmospheric pressure is measured using an
instrument called Barometer and hence atmospheric
pressure is also called Barometric pressure.
Unit: kPa .
bar is also a unit of atmospheric pressure 1bar =
100 kPa.

Absolute pressure and Gauge Pressure:

Absolute pressure at a point is the intensity of

pressure at that point measured with reference to
absolute vacuum or absolute zero pressure.

Absolute pressure at a point can never be negative

since there can be no pressure less than absolute zero
pressure.
If the intensity of pressure at a point is
measurement with reference to atmosphere pressure,
then it is called gauge pressure at that point.
Gauge pressure at a point may be more than the
atmospheric pressure or less than the atmospheric
pressure. Accordingly gauge pressure at the point may
be positive or negative.
Negative gauge pressure is also called vacuum
pressure.
From the figure, It is evident that, Absolute pressure at
a point = Atmospheric pressure Gauge pressure.

NOTE: If we measure absolute pressure at a Point

below the free surface of the liquid, then,
p = . Y + patm
If gauge pressure at a point is required, then
atmospheric pressure is taken as zero, then,
p = . Y
Pressure Head
It is the depth below the free surface of liquid
at which the required pressure intensity is
available.
P = h
P
h

For a given pressure intensity h will be different for

different liquids since, will be different for different
liquids.
Whenever pressure head is given, liquid or
the property of liquid like specify gravity, specify
weight, mass density should be given.
Eg:
i.3m of water
ii.10m of oil of S = 0.8.
iii.3m of liquid of = 15 kN/m3
iv.760mm of Mercury.
v.10m not correct.

NOTE:
1. To convert head of 1 liquid to head of another
liquid.
p 1h 1

Staandard

p 2h 2
1h1 2 h 2

S1

1
Staandard

1 S1 Staandard
21 S2 Staandard
S1 Staandard h1 S2 Staandard h 2
S1h1 S2 h 2

2. Swater x hwater = Sliquid x hliquid

1x hwater = Sliquid x hliquid
hwater = Sliquid x hliquid
Pressure head in meters of water is given by
the product of pressure head in meters of liquid and
specific gravity of the liquid.
Eg: 10meters of oil of specific gravity 0.8 is equal to
10x0.8 = 8 meters of water.
Eg: Atm pressure is 760mm of Mercury.

Problem:
1. Calculate intensity of pressure due to a column of
0.3m of (a) water (b) Mercury (c) Oil of specific
gravity-0.8.

2. Intensity of pressure required at a points is 40kPa.

Find corresponding head in (a) water (b) Mercury
(c) oil of specific gravity-0.9.

3. Standard atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa Find

the pressure head in (i) Meters of water (ii) mm of
mercury (iii) m of oil of specific gravity 0.8.

4. An open container has water to a depth of 2m and

above this an oil of S = 0.9 for a depth of 1m. Find
the intensity of pressure at the interface of two
liquids and at the bottom of the tank.
p A a1 h oil
(0.9 x 9.81) x 1
p A 8.829 kPa
p B oil xh oil water h water
p A 8.829 kPa 9.81 x 2
p B 28.45 kPa

5. Convert the following absolute pressure to gauge

pressure (a) 120kPa (b) 3kPa (c) 15m of H2o (d)
800mm of Hg.

PASCAL S LAW
Statement: Intensity of pressure at a point in a static
mass of fluid is same along the directions.
Proof:

Let us consider three planes around a point as

shown in figure. Figure shows intensity of pressure
and force along different directions. The system of
forces should be in equilibrium.

 Measurement of Pressure
Various devices used to measure fluid pressure can
be classified into,
1. Manometers
2. Mechanical gauges.
Manometers are the pressure measuring
devices which are based on the principal of
balancing the column of the liquids whose pressure
is to be measured by the same liquid or another
liquid.
Mechanical gauges consist of an elastic
element which deflects under the action of applied
pressure and this movement will operate a pointer
on a graduated scale.

Classification of Manometers:
Manometers are broadly classified into
a. Simple Manometers
b. Differential Manometers.
a) Simple Manometers
Simple monometers are used to measure intensity of
pressure at a point. They are connected to the point at
which the intensity of pressure is required. Such a point
is called gauge point.
b) Differential Manometers
Differential manometers are used to measure the
pressure difference between two points. They are
connected to the two points between which the intensity
of pressure is required.

 Types of Simple Manometers

Common types of simple manometers are
1.Piezometers
2.U-tube manometers
3.Single tube manometers
4.Inclined tube manometers
1. Piezometers

Piezometer consists of a glass tube inserted in the

wall of the vessel or pipe at the level of point at which
the intensity of pressure is to be measured. The
other end of the piezometer is exposed to air. The
height of the liquid in the piezometer gives the
pressure head from which the intensity of pressure
can be calculated.
To minimize capillary rise effects the diameters
of the tube is kept more than 12mm.
Merits
Simple in construction
Economical
Demerits
Not suitable for high pressure intensity.
Pressure of gases cannot be measured.

(b) U-tube Manometers:

A U-tube manometers consists of a glass tube bent in UShape, one end of which is connected to gauge point and the
other end is exposed to atmosphere. U-tube consists of a
liquid of specific of gravity other than that of fluid whose
pressure intensity is to be measured and is called monometric
liquid.
Manometric liquids
Manometric liquids should neither mix nor have any
chemical reaction with the fluid whose pressure intensity is
to be measured.
It should not undergo any thermal variation.
Manometric liquid should have very low vapour pressure.
Manometric liquid should have pressure sensitivity
depending upon the magnitude. Of pressure to be
measured and accuracy requirement.
Gauge equations are written for the system to solve for
unknown quantities.

 To write the gauge equation for manometers

Steps:
1. Convert all given pressure to meters of water and assume
unknown pressure in meters of waters.
2. Starting from one end move towards the other keeping the
following points in mind.

Any horizontal movement inside the same liquid

will not cause change in pressure.

Vertically downward movement causes increase

in pressure and upward motion cause decrease in
pressure.

Convert all vertical columns of liquids to

meters of water
by multiplying them by
corresponding specify gravity.

Take atmospheric pressure as zero (gauge pressure

computation).
3. Solve for the unknown quantity and convert it into the required

Problem:
1. Determine the pressure at A for the U- tube
manometer shown in fig. Also calculate the
absolute pressure at A in kPa.

Let hA be the pressure head at A in meters of

water.
h A 0.75 0.5 x 13.6 0
h A 6.05 m of water
p h
9.81 x 6.05
p 59.35 kPa ( gauge pressure )
p abs p atm p gauge
101.3 59.35
p abc 160.65 kPa

2. For the arrangement shown in figure, determine gauge and

absolute pressure at the point M.

3. If the pressure at At is 10 kPa (Vacuum) what is

the value of x?

p A 10

1.019 m of water

9.81
hA 1.019 m of water
1.019 0.2 x1.2 x (13.6) 0
x 0.0572 m

4. The tank in the accompanying figure consists of oil of

S = 0.75. Determine the pressure gauge reading in .

Let the pressure gauge reading be h m of water

h 3.75 x 0.75 + 0.25 x 13.6 = 0
h = - 0.5875 m of water
p=h
p = -5.763 kPa
p = 5.763 kPa (Vacuum)

5. A closed tank is 8m high. It is filled with Glycerin up

to a depth of 3.5m and linseed oil to another 2.5m.
The remaining space is filled with air under a
pressure of 150 kPa. If a pressure gauge is fixed at
the bottom of the tank what will be its reading. Also
calculate absolute pressure. Take relative density of
Glycerin and Linseed oil as 1.25 and 0.93
respectively.

PH 150 kPa
hM
hM

150

9.81
15.29 m of water

Let hN be the pressure gauge reading in m of water.

hN -3.5 x 1.25 -2.5 x 0.93 =15.29
hN = 21.99 m of water
p = 9.81 x 21.99
p = 215.72 kPa (gauge)
pabs = 317.02 kPa

6. A vertical pipe line attached with a gauge and a

manometer contains oil and Mercury as shown in
figure. The manometer is opened to atmosphere.
What is the gauge reading at A? Assume no flow
in the pipe.
hA-3 x 0.9 + 0.375 x 0.9 - 0.375 x 13.6 = 0
hA = 2.0625 m of water
p=xh
= 9.81 x 21.99

p = 20.23 kPa (gauge)

pabs = 101.3 +20.23
pabs = 121.53 kPa

 DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS
Differential manometers are used to measure
pressure difference between any two points.
Common varieties of differential manometers are:
a. Two piezometers.
b. Inverted U-tube manometer.
c. U-tube differential manometers.
d. Micromanometers.
a. Two Piezometer

The arrangement consists of two pizometers at

the two points between which the pressure difference
is required. The liquid will rise in both the piezometers.
The difference in elevation of liquid levels can be
recorded and the pressure difference can be
calculated.
It has all the merits and demerits of piezometer.
b. Inverted U-tube
manometers

Inverted U-tube manometer is used to measure

small difference in pressure between any two points.
It consists of an inverted U-tube connecting the two
points between which the pressure difference is
required. In between there will be a lighter sensitive
manometric liquid. Pressure difference between the
two points can be calculated by writing the gauge
equations for the system.
Let hA and hB be the pr head at A and B in
meters of water
hA (Y1 S1) + (x SM) + (y2 S2) = hB.
hA hB = S1 y1 SM x S2 y2,
pA pB = (hA hB)

c. U-tube Differential manometers

A differential U-tube manometer is used to measure

pressure difference between any two points. It
consists of a U-tube containing heavier manometric
liquid, the two limbs of which are connected to the
gauge points between which the pressure difference
is required. U-tube differential manometers can also
be used for gases. By writing the gauge equation for
the system pressure difference can be determined.

Let hA and hB be the pressure head of A and B in

meters of water
hA + S1 Y1 + x SM Y2 S2 = hB
hA hB = Y2 S2 Y1 S1 x SM

Problems
1. An inverted U-tube manometer is shown in figure.
Determine the pressure difference between A and
B in N/M2.
Let hA and hB be the pressure heads at A and B in
meters of water.

hA (190 x 10-2) + (0.3 x 0.9) + (0.4) 0.9 = hB

hA hB = 1.23 meters of water
pA pB = (hA hB) = 9.81 x 1.23
pA pB = 12.06 kPa
pA pB = 12.06 x 103 N/m2

2. In the arrangements shown in figure. Determine the

ho h.

3. In the figure given, the air pressure in the left tank is

230 mm of Mercury (Vacuum). Determine the
elevation of gauge liquid in the right limb at A. If the
liquid in the right tank is water.

4. Compute the pressure different between M and N

for the system shown in figure.

5. Petrol of specify gravity 0.8 flows up through a

vertical pipe. A and B are the two points in the pipe,
B being 0.3 m higher than A. Connection are led
from A and B to a Utube containing Mercury. If the
pressure difference between A and B is 18 kPa, find
the reading of manometer.

6. A cylindrical tank contains water to a height of

50mm. Inside is a small open cylindrical tank
containing kerosene at a height specify gravity 0.8.
The following pressures are known from indicated
gauges.
pB = 13.8 kPa (gauge)
pC = 13.82 kPa (gauge)
Determine the gauge pressure pA and height h.
Assume that kerosene is prevented from moving to
the top of the tank.

7. Find the pressure different between A and B if d 1 =

300mm, d2 = 150mm, d3 = 460mm, d4 = 200mm and
13.6.

8. What is the pressure pA in the fig given below?

Take specific gravity of oil as 0.8.

hA + (3 x 0.8) + (4.6 - 0.3) (13.6) = 0

hA = 2.24 m of oil
pA = 9.81 x 2.24
pA = 21.97 kPa

9. Find d in the system shown in fig. If pA = 2.7 kPa

hA

pA
2.7

9.81

h A 0.2752 m of water
h A (0.05 x 0.6) (0.05 0.02 0.01)0.6
(0.01 x 13.6) (0.03 x 13.6) d x 1.4) 0
0.0692 1.4d 0
d 0.0494 m
or
d 49.4 mm

10. Determine the absolute pressure at A for the

system shown in fig.

hA - (0.25 x 0.8) + (0.15 x 0.7) + (0.3 x 0.8)-(0.6) = 0

hA = 0.455 m of water
pA = hA x 9.81
pA = 4.464 kPa
pabs = 101.3 + 4.464
p = 105.764 kPa

SINGLE COLUMN MANOMETER:

Single column manometer is used to measure
small pressure intensities.

A single column manometer consists of a shallow reservoir

having large cross sectional area when compared to cross
sectional area of U tube connected to it. For any change in
pressure, change in the level of manometeric liquid in the
reservoir is small and change in level of manometric liquid in
the U- tube is large.

To derive expression for pressure head at A:

BB and CC are the levels of manometric liquid in
the reservoir and U-tube before connecting the point A
to the manometer, writing gauge equation for the
system we have,
+ y x S h1 x Sm = 0
Sy = Smh1
Let the point A be connected to the manometer.
B1B1 and C1 C1 are the levels of manometeric liquid.
Volume of liquid between BBB1B1 = Volume of liquid
between CCC1C1
A = a h2
ah2

INCLINED TUBE SINGLE COLUMN MANOMETER:

Inclined tube SCM is used to measure small intensity pressure.

It consists of a large reservoir to which an inclined U tube is
connected as shown in fig. For small changes in pressure the
reading h2 in the inclined tube is more than that of SCM.
Knowing the inclination of the tube the pressure intensity at the
gauge point can be determined.

a
h A h2 sin ( Sm S ) h2 sin .Sm
A

If a/A is very small then hA = (h2 Sin) Sm.