Key Notes: Jayam College of Engineering & Technology Fluid Mechanics & Machinery Me1202
Key Notes: Jayam College of Engineering & Technology Fluid Mechanics & Machinery Me1202
Key Notes: Jayam College of Engineering & Technology Fluid Mechanics & Machinery Me1202
KEY NOTES
UNIT-1
Fluid is defined as a substance that is capable of flowing and has no shape of its
own.
The four examples are the fundamental units; other derived units are
Area L*L m2
Volume L*L*L m3
Velocity L* T-1 m/s
Acceleration L*T-2 m/s2
Force M*L*T-2 N
Pressure M*L-1*T-2 N/m2 = Pa
Work M*L2*T-2 Nm =J
Power M*L2*T-3 J/s =W
Density M*L-3 kg/m3
Viscosity M*L-1*T-1 kg/ms = N s/m2
Surface Tension M*T-1 N/m
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS:
DENSITY
a) Mass Density or Specific Mass ( )
It is defined as the mass of a substance per unit volume. SI Unit is kg/m3.
= Mass (M)/Volume(V)
d) Specific Volume of a fluid is the volume of fluid per unit weight. It is the
reciprocal of
specific weight. SI unit is m3/kg.
PRESSURE (P)
The pressure at a point is defined as the normal compressive force per unit area
at that
point.
• Atmospheric pressure is taken as a suitable reference for pressure
measurement.
• Atmos. Pressure is 1.01373 x 105 N/m2.
• Pressure above Atmospheric pressure is Gauge Pressure.
• Pressure below Atmospheric Pressure is Vacuum Pressure.
Relationship between the pressure stated for different references:
Viscosity
It is that property of a fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to the movement
of one layer of fluid over an adjacent layer.
Viscosity of liquids:
• Viscosity of liquids in general, decreases with increasing temperature.
• The viscosity (µ) of liquids generally vary approximately with temperature t
according to: µt = µ0/ (1+ At+ bt2 )
µ0= Viscosity of water at 00 C, = 0.17X10-2, A= const= 0.033 B= Const=0.00022
b) Viscosity of gases:
• Viscosity of gases increases with increase in temperature.
• The viscosity ( ) of many gases is approximated by the formula:
µt = µ0 +At- bt2
in which t is the temperature,
µ0 is the viscosity of air at 00 C = 0.17X10-4, and A= const= 0.56 x10-7
B= Const=0.11X10-9
Vapour Pressure:
• The liquid evaporates when the molecules escape from the liquid surface.
• If the space above the liquid is confined, a point is reached where the
number of vapour molecules striking the liquid surface and condensing are
equal to those molecules which are escaping.
Cavitation:
• Cavitation(flashing of the liquid into vapour) takes place when very low
pressures are produced at certain locations of a flowing liquid. Cavitation
results in the formation of vapour pockets or cavities which are carried
away from the point of origin and collapse at the high pressure zone.
A perfect gas is defined as a substance that follows the law of perfect gases and
has
constant specific heats. A perfect gas has viscosity and hence, develops shear
stresses and it is compressible.
If p = absolute pressure, N/m2, v = specific volume, m3 and T=Absolute
temperature, K
• Real gases below critical pressure and above the critical temperature
obey perfect gas law which is a combination of Boyle’ s and Charle’ s law.
• Boyle’ s law states that for constant temperature, the density varies directly
as
• absolute pressure.
• Charle’ s law states that for constant pressure, the volume of a given mass
of gas varies as its absolute pressure.
Thus, pv = mRT
On molal basis, the above equation is expressed as
1. Isothermal process: An isothermal process in the one in which temperature
remains
constant. i.e. pv = Constant.
2. Adiabatic Process: An adiabatic process in the one in which there is no heat
transfer
to and from the gas. i.e. pvr = Constant,
where r is the ratio of specific heat of gas at constant pressure and constant
volume.= Cp/Cv, 1.4 for air.
Surface Tension
• A molecule I in the interior of a liquid is under attractive forces in all
directions and the vector sum of these forces is zero.
• But a molecule S at the surface of a liquid is acted by a net inward
cohesive force that is perpendicular to the surface.
• Hence it requires work to move molecules to the surface against this
opposing force, and surface molecules have more energy than interior
ones.
• The surface tension ( sigma) of a liquid is the work that must be done to
bring enough molecules from inside the liquid to the surface to form one
new unit area of that surface
• It is also defined as “ the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in
contact with a gasor on the surface between two immiscible liquids such
that the contact surface behaves like a membrane under tension. It is
denoted by
• (J/m2 = N/m). (1 dyne/cm = 0.001 N/m).
Surface tension is the tendency of the surface of a liquid to behave like a
stretched elastic
membrane.
For such a small droplet, surface tension will cause an increase of internal
pressure p in order to balance the surface force.
We will find the amount (dp = p - poutside) by which the pressure inside a liquid
droplet of radius r, exceeds the pressure of the surrounding vapor/air by making
force balances on a hemispherical drop. Observe that the internal pressure p is
trying to blow apart the two hemispheres, whereas the surface tension is trying
to pull them together.
Therefore, dp r2 = 2 r
i.e. dp = 2 /r (for liquid droplet)
Similar force balances can be made for cylindrical liquid jet.
dp 2r= 2
Capillarity:
Rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and
depends on the relative magnitude of cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of
the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes if they wet
(adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes that do not wet (cohesion > adhesion).
Fig.(c) represents the case of no wetting. If there were exactly zero wetting,
would be 180o. However, the gravity force on the drop flattens the drop, so that
180o angle is never observed. This might represent water on teflon or mercury on
clean glass. We normally say that a liquid wet a surface if is less than 90o and
does not wet if is more than 90o. Values of less than 20o are considered
strong wetting and values of greater than 140o are strong non wetting.
Capillarity is important (in fluid measurements) when using tubes smaller than
about 10 mm in diameter Capillary rise (or depression) in a tube can be
calculated by making force balances. The forces acting are forces due to surface
tension and gravity. The
force due to surface tension, Fs = d cos( ), where is the wetting angle or
contact angle. If tube (made of glass) is clean is zero for water and about 140o
for Mercury. This is opposed by the gravity force on the column of fluid, which is
equal to the height of the liquid which is above (or below) the free surface and
which equals Fg = ( /4)d2hg , where is the density of liquid. Equating these
forces and solving for Capillary rise (or depression), we find
h = 4 cos( )/( gd).
PASCAL’S LAW
Manometers
• A somewhat more complicated device for measuring fluid pressure consists of a
bent tube containing one or more liquid of different specific gravities. Such a
device is known as manometer.
• In using a manometer, generally a known pressure (which may be atmospheric) is
applied to one end of the manometer tube and the unknown pressure to be
determined is applied to the other end.
• In some cases, however, the difference between pressure at ends of the
manometer tube is desired rather than the actual pressure at the either end. A
manometer to determine this differential pressure is known as differential
pressure manometer.
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
UNIT-1
PART –A
11) 11.. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a fluid which is compressed in a
cylinder from a volume of 0.009 m3 at 70 N/cm2 pressure to a volume of 0.0085
m3 at 270 N/cm2 pressure
12) Define surface tension. Derive the relationship between surface tension and
pressure inside a droplet of liquid in excess of outside pressure.
13) Explain the phenomenon of capillarity. Obtain an expression for capillary rise of a
liquid.
14) 14. The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20° C is given as 0.0716
N/m. The pressure inside a droplet of water is to be 0.0147 N/cm2 greater than
the outside pressure, calculate the diameter of the droplet of water.
15) 15. The capillary rise in the glass tube used for rneasuring water level is not to
exceed 0.5 mrn. Determine its minimum size, given that surface tension for water
in contact with air = 0.07112 N/rn
16) 16. Find the capillary rise of water in a tube of 0.03 cm diameter. The surface
tension of water is 0.0735 N/rn.
17) State the Pascal’ s law.
18) What do you understand by Vapor Pressure.
19) What do you understand by Hydrostatic Law?
20) Differentiate between Absolute and gauge pressure,
21) Differentiate between Simple manometer and differential manometer,
22) Differentiate between piezometer and pressure gauges.
23) What is a manometer? How are they classified?
24) What is the difference between U-tube differential manometers and inverted U-
tube differential manometers? Where are they used
25) Distinguish between manometers and mechanical gauges. What are the different
types of mechanical pressure gauges?
26) The pressure intensity at a point in a fluid is given 4.9 N/cm2 Find the
corresponding height of fluid when it is: (a) Water, and (b) an oil of sp. gr. 0.8.
27) An open tank contains water up to a depth of 1.5 m and above it an oil of sp. gr.
0.8 for a depth of 2 m. Find the pressure intensity: (i) at the interface of the two
liquids, and (ii) at the bottom of the tank
PART- B
1) A plate, 0.025 mm distant from a fixed plate, moves at 50cm/s and requires a
force of 1.471 N/rn to maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between
the plates in the poise.
2) Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = 1.2 poise and is used
for lubrication in the clearance between a 10 cm diameter shaft and its journal
bearing. The clearance is 1.0mm and shaft rotates at 200 r.p.m.
3) Two plates are placed at a distance of 0.15mm apart. The lower plate is fixed
while the upper plate having surface area 1.0 m2 is pulled at 0.3 m/s. Find the
force and power required to maintain this speed, if the fluid separating them is
having viscosity 1.5 poise.
4) An oil film of thickness 1.5 mm is used for lubrication between a square plate of
size 0.9 m x 0.9 m and an inclined plane having an angle of inclination 20° . The
weight of the square plate is 392.4 N and it slides down the plane with a uniform
velocity of 0.2 m/s. Find the dynamic viscosity of the oil.
5) The velocity distribution for flow over a flat plate is given by u =3/2 y —y 3/2 where
u is the point velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate.
Determine the shear stress at y = 9 cm. Assume dynamic viscosity as 8 poise.
6) An oil of viscosity 5 poise is used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve. The
diameter of shaft is 0.5 m and it rotates at 200 r.p.m. Calculate the power lost in
the oil for a sleeve length of 100 mm. The thickness of the oil is 1.0 mm.