Chapter 5, Part B

Failure Modes
MET 210W
E. Evans/ R.Michael

Ductility and Percent Elongation

Ductility is the degree to which a material
will deform before ultimate fracture.
Percent elongation is used as a measure
of ductility.
Ductile Materials have %E 5%
Brittle Materials have %E < 5%
For machine members subject to repeated
or shock or impact loads, materials with
%E > 12% are recommended.

Ductile materials - extensive plastic deformation and

energy absorption (toughness) before fracture
Brittle materials - little plastic deformation and low energy
absorption before failure

DUCTILE VS BRITTLE FAILURE

Classification:

(a)

Ductile
fracture is
desirable!

Ductile:
warning before
fracture

(b)

(c)
Brittle:
No
warning

DUCTILE FAILURE
Evolution to failure:

cup and cone fracture

Resulting
fracture
surfaces

(steel)

particles serve as void

nucleation sites.

50 m
1 m = 1 X 10-6 m = 0.001 mm

Failure Prediction Methods

Static Loads
Brittle Materials - FT:
Maximum Normal Stress
Modified Mohr

- Uniaxial stress
- Biaxial stress

Ductile Materials - FT:

Yield Strength
Maximum Shear Strength
Distortion Energy

- Uniaxial stress
- Biaxial stress
- Biaxial or Triaxial

Predictions of Failure
Fluctuating Loads
Brittle Materials:
Not recommended

Ductile Materials:
Goodman
Gerber
Soderberg

Maximum Normal Stress

Uniaxial Static Loads on Brittle Material:
Brittle Material

Static
Load

In tension:
DESIGN:

max

Sut
K t d
N

ANALYSIS:

Sut
N
max

In compression:
DESIGN:

max

Suc
K t d
N

ANALYSIS:

Sut
N
max

Modified Mohr Method

Biaxial Static Stress on Brittle Materials
45 Shear Diagonal

Sut

Suc

Sut

1
1, 2

Failure when outside of shaded area

Suc

Stress concentrations
applied to stresses before
making the circle

Brittle materials often have a

much larger compressive
strength than tensile strength

Yield Strength Method

Uniaxial Static Stress on Ductile Materials
Static
Load

Ductile Material

In tension:
DESIGN:

max d

S yt

ANALYSIS:

In compression:
S yc
max d
N

ANALYSIS:

DESIGN:

For most ductile materials, Syt = Syc

S yt

max

S yc

max

Maximum Shear Stress

Biaxial Static Stress on Ductile Materials
DESIGN:

max d

ANALYSIS:

S ys
N

Sy

avg, max

2N

S ys

max

Ductile materials begin to yield when the maximum shear stress in a load-carrying
component exceeds that in a tensile-test specimen when yielding begins.
Somewhat conservative approach use the Distortion Energy Method
for a more precise failure estimate

Distortion Energy
Static

Biaxial or Triaxial Stress on Ductile Materials

Shear
Diagonal
Sy

Best predictor of failure for

ductile materials under static
loads or under completely
reversed normal, shear or
combined stresses.

Sy
Sy

' 12 22 1 2
= von Mises stress

Sy

Distortion Energy

Failure:

> Sy

Design:

d = Sy/N

ANALYSIS:

Sy

von Mises Stress

Alternate Form

' 2x 2y x y 3 2xy
For uniaxial stress when y = 0,

Triaxial Distortion Energy

'
2

' 3
2
x

2
xy

(1 > 2 > 3)

( 2 1 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2 ( 3 2 ) 2

Comparison of Static Failure

Theories:
Shows no failure zones

Maximum Shear most conservative

Summary Static Failure Theories:

Brittle materials fail on planes of max normal
stress:
Max Normal Stress Theory
Modified Mohr Theory

Ductile materials fail on planes of max shear

stress:
Max shear stress theory
Distortion energy theory

See summary table!

Do example problems for static loading!

Brittle failure or ductile failure? Key: is the fracture surface

on a plane of max shear or max normal stress.

TORQUE:

DUCTILE

BRITTLE

AXIAL

Brittle

Ductile

Goodman Method
Good predictor of failure in ductile materials
experiencing fluctuating stress
a

Sn = actual endurance
strength
a = alternating stress
m = mean stress

Sy

Yield Line
Sn

NO FATIGUE
FAILURE REGION
-Sy

FATIGUE
FAILURE REGION
Goodman Line
a m

1
Sn S u
Sy

Su

Goodman Diagram
Safe Stress Line

K t a
Sn

Sn = actual endurance strength

a = alternating stress
m = mean stress

m 1

Su N

Sy

Yield Line
Sn

FATIGUE
FAILURE REGION
Goodman Line
a m

1
Sn S u

Sn/N
SAFE ZONE
-Sy

Su/N

Sy

Su

Safe Stress Line

Actual Endurance Strength

Sn = Sn(Cm)(Cst)(CR)(CS)
Sn

= actual endurance strength (ESTIMATE)

Sn

= endurance strength from Fig. 5-8

Cm

= material factor (pg. 174)

Cst

= stress type:

1.0 for bending

0.8 for axial tension
0.577 for shear

CR

= reliability factor

CS

= size factor

Actual Sn Example
Find the endurance strength for a valve stem
made of AISI 4340 OQT 900F steel.
From Fig. A4-5.
Su = 190 ksi
From Fig. 5-8.
Sn = 62 ksi
(machined)

62 ksi

Actual Sn Example Continued

Sn = Sn(Cm)(Cst)(CR)(CS)
= 62 ksi(1.0)(.8)(.81)(.94) = 37.8 ksi
Sn,Table 5-8
Wrought Steel
Axial Tension

Actual Sn
Estimate

Reliability, Table 5-1

Size Factor, Fig. 5-9
99% Probability
Sn is at or above the
Guessing: diameter .5
calculated value

Example: Problem 5-53.

Find a suitable titanium alloy. N = 3
1.5 mm Radius
30 mm
DIA

42 mm DIA

F varies from 20 to 30.3 kN

FORCE

MAX = 30.3

30.3 20
5.15 kN
2
30.3 20
mean
25.15 kN
2
alt

MIN = 20

TIME

Example: Problem 5-53 continued.

Find the mean stress:
25,150 N
m
35.6MPa

(30 mm )2
4

Find the alternating stress:

a

5,150 N

(30 mm )2
4

7.3MPa

Stress concentration from App. A15-1:

D 42 mm

1.4;
d 30 mm

r 1.5 mm

.05
d 30 mm

Kt 2.3

Example: Problem 5-53 continued.

Sn data not available for titanium so we will guess!
Assume Sn = Su/4 for extra safety factor.

TRY T2-65A, Su = 448 MPa, Sy = 379 MPa

K t a
Sn

m
1

Su
N

(Eqn 5-20)

2.3(7.3 MPa)
35.6 MPa 1

.297
.8(.86)( 448 MPa / 4) 448 MPa N
Size
1
N
3.36
Reliability 50%
Tension
.297
3.36 is good, need further information on Sn for titanium.

Example:
Find a suitable steel for N = 3 & 90% reliable.
3 mm Radius
50 mm DIA

30 mm
DIA

T varies from 848 N-m to 1272 N-m

TORQUE

MAX = 1272 N-m

1272 848
212 N m
2
1272 848
mean
1060 N m
2

alt
MIN = 848 N-m

TIME

T = 1060 212 N-m

Example: continued.
Stress concentration from App. A15-1:
D 50 mm

1.667;
d 30 mm

r
3 mm

.1 Kt 1.38
d 30 mm

Find the mean shear stress:

)
Tm 1060 N m(1000 mm
m
m

200MPa

Zp
(30 mm )3
16

Find the alternating shear stress:

Ta 212000 N mm
a

40MPa
3
Zp
5301 mm

Example: continued.
So, = 200 40 MPa. Guess a material.
TRY: AISI 1040 OQT 400F
Su = 779 MPa, Sy = 600 MPa, %E = 19%

Verify that max Sys:

Ductile

max = 200 + 40 = 240 MPa Sys 600/2 = 300MPa

Find the ultimate shear stress:

Sus = .75Su = .75(779 MPa) = 584 MPa

Example: continued.
Assume machined surface, Sn 295 MPa
Find actual endurance strength:

(Fig. 5-8)

Ssn
= Sn(Cm)(Cst)(CR)(CS)
= 295 MPa(1.0)(.577)(.9)(.86) = 132 MPa

Sn
Wrought steel
Shear Stress

Size 30 mm
90% Reliability

Example: continued.

Goodman:

K t a
Ssn

m
1

S su N

(Eqn. 5-28)

1.38( 40 MPa) 200 MPa 1

.7606
132 MPa
584 MPa N
1
N
1.31
.7606
No Good!!! We wanted N 3
Need a material with Su about 3 times bigger than this
guess or/and a better surface finish on the part.

Example: continued.
Guess another material.
TRY: AISI 1340 OQT 700F
Su = 1520 MPa, Sy = 1360 MPa, %E = 10%
Ductile

Find the ultimate shear stress:

Sus = .75Su = .75(779 MPa) = 584 MPa

Find actual endurance strength:

Ssn = Sn(Cm)(Cst)(CR)(CS)
= 610 MPa(1.0)(.577)(.9)(.86) = 272 MPa
Sn

shear
wrought

size
reliable

Example: continued.

Goodman:

K t a
Ssn

m
1

S su N

(Eqn. 5-28)

1.38( 40 MPa) 200 MPa

1

.378
272 MPa
1140 MPa N
1
N
2.64
.378

No Good!!! We wanted N 3
Decision Point:
Accept 2.64 as close enough to 3.0?
Go to polished surface?
Change dimensions? Material? (Cant do much better in
steel since Sn does not improve much for Su > 1500 MPa

Example: Combined Stress Fatigue

RBE
2/11/97

Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Contd

PIPE: TS4 x .237 WALL
MATERIAL: ASTM A242
Equivalent
Reversed,
Repeated

DEAD WEIGHT:
SIGN + ARM + POST = 1000#
(Compression)

45
Bending

RBE
2/11/97

Repeated one direction

Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Contd

Stress Analysis:
Dead Weight:

P
1000 #

315.5 psi
2
A 3.17 in

(Static)

Vertical from Wind:

P
200 #

63.09 psi
2
A 3.17 in

(Cyclic)

Bending:
M 500 # (60 in)

9345.8 psi
3
Z
3.21 in

(Static)

Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Contd

Stress Analysis:
Torsion:
T
200 # (100 in)

3115 .3 psi
3
ZP
2(3.21 in )

Stress Elements:
STATIC:

315.5 psi

(Cyclic)

(Viewed from +y)

CYCLIC:

9345.8 psi

z
x

z
x

63.09 psi Repeated

One Direction

= 3115.3 psi

Fully Reversed

Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Contd

Mean Stress:
Static
Repeated / 2

8998.8 psi
(CW)

TIME

Stress

9345.8
-315.5
-31.5

Alternating Stress:
m
MIN = -63.09 psi

max

max

(CW)
(0,-3115.3)

1
(-31.5,-3115.3)

max

8998.8 psi

4499.4 psi
2

max 3115 .34 psi

Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Contd

Determine Strength:
Try for N = 3 some uncertainty
Size Factor? OD = 4.50 in, Wall thickness = .237 in
ID = 4.50 2(.237) = 4.026 in
Max. stress at OD. The stress declines to 95% at
95% of the OD = .95(4.50) = 4.275 in. Therefore,
amount of steel at or above 95% stress is the same
as in 4.50 solid.
ASTM A242: Su = 70 ksi, Sy = 50 ksi, %E = 21%
t

3/4

Ductile

Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Contd

We must use Ssu and Ssn since this is a combined
stress situation. (Case I1, page 197)
Sus = .75Su = .75(70 ksi) = 52.5 ksi
Ssn = Sn(Cm)(Cst)(CR)(CS)
= 23 ksi(1.0)(.577)(.9)(.745) = 8.9 ksi
Hot Rolled
Surface
Wrought steel
Combined or Shear Stress

Size 4.50 dia

90% Reliability

Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Contd

Safe Line for Goodman Diagram:
a = Ssn / N = 8.9 ksi / 3 = 2.97 ksi
m = Ssu / N = 52.5 ksi / 3 = 17.5 ksi
Alternating Stress, a

K t a
Ssn

10
Ssn

N=1F
Not Fai

ai l

Ssn/N

N=3
Safe

5
mean = 4499.4

1
2.29
.426

Su

Ktalt

m
1

S su N

1.0(3115 .3 psi) 4499.4 psi 1

.426
8900 psi
52500 psi N

5
3115.3

10
15
Mean Stress, m

Su/N

20

Design Factors, N
(a.k.a. Factor of Safety)
FOR DUCTILE
MATERIALS:
N = 1.25 to 2.0

Static loading, high level of confidence in all design

data

N = 2.0 to 2.5

Dynamic loading, average confidence in all design

data

N = 2.5 to 4.0

Static or dynamic with uncertainty about loads,

material properties, complex stress state, etc

N = 4.0 or higher Above + desire to provide extra safety

Failure
Theory:

When Use?

Failure When:

Design Stress:

1. Maximum
Normal Stress

Brittle Material/ Uniaxial

Static Stress

2. Yield Strength
(Basis for MCH T
213)

Ductile Material/
Uniaxial Static Normal
Stress

max Syt (for tension)

max Syc (for compression)
Note : Syt Syc for ductile/wrought material

d Syt / N (for tension)

d Syc / N (for compression)

3. Maximum Shear
Stress (Basis for
MCH T 213)

Ductile Material/ Bi-axial

Static Stress

max Sys where Sys Sy/2

d Sys / N where Sys Sy/2

4. Distortion Energy
(von Mises)

Ductile Material/ Bi-axial

Static Stress

' 12 22 1 2 Sy

5. Goodman Method

Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Normal
Stress (Fatigue Loading)

max Kt Sut (for tension)

max Kt Suc (for compression)

where ' von Mises stress

see Figure 5.15

Ductile Material/

Failure
Theories Kfor
STATIC
1
where Loading
Fluctuating Shear Stress
S
S
(Fatigue Loading)

Uniaxial:

Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Combined
Stress (Fatigue Loading)

su

S sn' 0.577 S n' and S su 0.75S u

Bi-axial:
K t ( a ) max ( m ) max

1
S sn'
S su

'd Sy / N
see Figure 5 - 13
K t a m 1

S n'
Su N

K t a m

1
S n'
Su
t a
'
sn

d Sut / N (for tension)

d Suc / N (for compression)

or
where

S sn' 0.577 S n' and S su 0.75S u

K t a m
1

'
S sn
S su N

where

S sn' 0.577 S n' and S su 0.75Su

K t ( a ) max ( m ) max

1
S sn'
S su

where

S sn' 0.577 S n' and S su 0.75S u

Failure
Theory:

When Use?

Failure When:

Design Stress:

1. Maximum
Normal Stress

Brittle Material/ Uniaxial

Static Stress

2. Yield Strength
(Basis for MCH T
213)

Ductile Material/
Uniaxial Static Normal
Stress

max Syt (for tension)

max Syc (for compression)
Note : Syt Syc for ductile/wrought material

d Syt / N (for tension)

d Syc / N (for compression)

3. Maximum Shear
Stress (Basis for
MCH T 213)

Ductile Material/ Bi-axial

Static Stress

max Sys where Sys Sy/2

d Sys / N where Sys Sy/2

4. Distortion Energy
(von Mises)

Ductile Material/ Bi-axial

Static Stress

' 12 22 1 2 Sy

5. Goodman Method

a. Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Normal
Stress (Fatigue Loading)

max Kt Sut (for tension)

max Kt Suc (for compression)

Failure Theories for FATIGUE Loading

b. Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Shear Stress
(Fatigue Loading)
c. Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Combined
Stress (Fatigue Loading)

where ' von Mises stress

'd Sy / N
see Figure 5 - 13
K t a m 1

S n'
Su N

K t a m

1
S n'
Su
K t a m

1
S sn'
S su

d Sut / N (for tension)

d Suc / N (for compression)

see Figure 5.15

K t a m
1

'
S sn
S su N

where

S sn' 0.577 S n' and S su 0.75S u

K t ( a ) max ( m ) max

1
S sn'
S su

where

S sn' 0.577 S n' and S su 0.75S u

where

S sn' 0.577 S n' and S su 0.75Su

K t ( a ) max ( m ) max

1
S sn'
S su

where

S sn' 0.577 S n' and S su 0.75S u

Failure
Theory:

When Use?

1. Maximum
Normal Stress

Brittle Material/ Uniaxial

Static Stress

2. Yield Strength
(Basis for MCH T
213)

Ductile Material/
Uniaxial Static Normal
Stress

max Syt (for tension)

max Syc (for compression)
Note : Syt Syc for ductile/wrought material

d Syt / N (for tension)

d Syc / N (for compression)

3. Maximum Shear
Stress (Basis for
MCH T 213)

Ductile Material/ Bi-axial

Static Stress

max Sys where Sys Sy/2

d Sys / N where Sys Sy/2

4. Distortion Energy
(von Mises)

Ductile Material/ Bi-axial

Static Stress

' 12 22 1 2 Sy

5. Goodman Method

a. Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Normal
Stress (Fatigue Loading)
b. Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Shear Stress
(Fatigue Loading)
c. Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Combined
Stress (Fatigue Loading)

Failure When:

Design Stress:

max Kt Sut (for tension)

max Kt Suc (for compression)

where ' von Mises stress

'd Sy / N
see Figure 5 - 13
K t a m 1

S n'
Su N

K t a m

1
S n'
Su
K t a m

1
S sn'
S su

d Sut / N (for tension)

d Suc / N (for compression)

see Figure 5.15

K t a m
1

'
S sn
S su N

where

S sn' 0.577 S n' and S su 0.75S u

K t ( a ) max ( m ) max

1
S sn'
S su

where

S sn' 0.577 S n' and S su 0.75S u

where

S sn' 0.577 S n' and S su 0.75Su

K t ( a ) max ( m ) max

1
S sn'
S su

where

S sn' 0.577 S n' and S su 0.75S u

General Comments:
1.

Failure theory to use depends on material (ductile vs. brittle) and type of loading (static or
dynamic). Note, ductile if elongation > 5%.

2.

Ductile material static loads ok to neglect Kt (stress concentrations)

3.

Brittle material static loads must use Kt

4.

Terminology:

Su (or Sut) = ultimate strength in tension

Suc = ultimate strength in compression

Sy = yield strength in tension

Sys = 0.5*Sy = yield strength in shear

Sus = 0.75*Su = ultimate strength in shear

Sn = endurance strength = 0.5*Su or get from Fig 5-8 or S-N curve

Sn = estimated actual endurance strength = Sn(C m) (Cst) (CR) (Cs)

Ssn = 0.577* Sn = estimated actual endurance strength in shear

5.9 What Failure Theory to Use: