V Compaction: Courtesy of U.S. WICK DRAIN, INC
V Compaction: Courtesy of U.S. WICK DRAIN, INC
V Compaction: Courtesy of U.S. WICK DRAIN, INC
Compaction
Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Soil Improvement
Compaction
Theory of Compaction
Properties and Structure of Compacted FineGrained Soils
Field Compaction Equipment and Procedures
Field Compaction Control and Specifications
Estimating Performance of Compacted Soils
Suggested Homework
References
1. Soil Improvement
Ground
Improvement
Stone Columns
Soil Nails
Deep Soil Nailing
Micropiles (Mini-piles)
Jet Grouting
Ground Anchors
Geosynthetics
Fiber Reinforcement
Lime Columns
Vibro-Concrete Column
Mechanically Stabilized
Earth
Biotechnical
Deep Dynamic
Compaction
Drainage/Surcharge
Electro-osmosis
Compaction grouting
Blasting
Surface Compaction
Ground
Treatment
Soil Cement
Lime Admixtures
Flyash
Dewatering
Heating/Freezing
Vitrification
Compaction
Shaefer, 1997
Courtesy of Menard-soltraitement
Question?
The compaction result is
not good. Why?
Heavy Weight
2. Compaction
Objectives:
(1) Decrease future settlements
(2) Increase shear strength
(3) Decrease permeability
Coarse-grained soils
Vibrating hammer (BS)
dough
Fine-grained soils
Falling weight and hammers
Kneading compactors
Static loading and press
Field
Vibration
Hand-operated tampers
Sheepsfoot rollers
Rubber-tired rollers
Kneading
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981; Head, 1992)
3. Theory of Compaction
(Laboratory Test)
Purpose
Impact compaction
1
2
Das, 1998
Das, 1998
Das, 1998
3.1.3 Comparison-Summary
Standard Proctor Test
12 in height of drop
18 in height of drop
5.5 lb hammer
10 lb hammer
25 blows/layer
25 blows/layer
3 layers
5 layers
3.1.4 Comparison-Why?
In the early days of compaction, because construction equipment was
small and gave relatively low compaction densities, a laboratory
method that used a small amount of compacting energy was required.
As construction equipment and procedures were developed which gave
higher densities, it became necessary to increase the amount of
compacting energy in the laboratory test.
The modified test was developed during World War II by the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineering to better represent the compaction required
for airfield to support heavy aircraft. The point is that increasing the
compactive effort tends to increase the maximum dry density, as
expected, but also decrease the optimum water content.
Weight of
hammer
E=
Height of
drop of
hammer
Number of
blows per
layer
Number of
layers
Volume of mold
(2) The total or wet density and the actual water content of each
compacted sample are measured.
Mt
, d
Vt
1 w
(3) Plot the dry densities d versus water contents w for each compacted
sample. The curve is called as a compaction curve.
Line of optimum
Zero air void
Peak point
Line of
optimums
Zero air
void
d max
Modified
Proctor
Results
Standard
Proctor
wopt
Line of optimums
A line drawn through the peak points of several compaction curves at
different compactive efforts for the same soil will be almost parallel to a
100 % S curve, it is called the line of optimums
wS
S
w
S
w wS w
s
Gs
s
1 e
Se wG s
d
(wopt, d max)
d
Higher
swelling
potential
(wopt, d max)
d
Higher
shrinkage
potential
w
From Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
More random
Permeability
More permeable
Compressibility
Swelling
Strength
More compressible in
high pressure range
Swell more,
higher water
deficiency
Wet side
More oriented
(parallel)
More compressible in
low pressure range
*Shrink more
Higher
Please see Table 5-1
5.1 Equipment
Smooth-wheel roller (drum)
50% coverage
Contact pressure is from 1400 to
6200 kPa
It is ideally suited for compacting
rocky soils, gravels, and sands.
With high towing speed, the
material is vibrated, crushed, and
impacted.
Compactive effort: static weight
and vibration.
to
5.1 Equipment-Summary
Construction procedures:
(1) Number of passes of the roller
(2) Lift thickness
(3) Frequency of operation vibrator
(4) Towing speed
5.2.1 Frequency
The frequency at which
a maximum density is
achieved is called the
optimum frequency.
5.4 Vibroflotation
Vibroflotation is a technique for
in situ densification of thick
layers of loose granular soil
deposits. It was developed in
Germany in the 1930s.
5.4 Vibroflotation-Procedures
Stage1: The jet at the bottom of the Vibroflot is turned on and lowered into the ground
Stage2: The water jet creates a quick condition in the soil. It allows the vibrating unit to
sink into the ground
Stage 3: Granular material is poured from the top of the hole. The water from the lower jet
is transferred to he jet at the top of the vibrating unit. This water carries the granular
material down the hole
Stage 4: The vibrating unit is gradually raised in about 0.3-m lifts and held vibrating for
about 30 seconds at each lift. This process compacts the soil to the desired unit weight.
6. Field Compaction
Control and Specifications
6.3 Specifications
(1) End-product specifications
This specification is used for most highways and building
foundation, as long as the contractor is able to obtain the
specified relative compaction , how he obtains it doesnt
matter, nor does the equipment he uses.
Care the results only !
(2) Method specifications
The type and weight of roller, the number of passes of that
roller, as well as the lift thickness are specified. A maximum
allowable size of material may also be specified.
It is typically used for large compaction project.
From Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
R.C.
d filed
d max laboratory
100%
R.C. 80 0.2D r
It is a statistical result
based on 47 soil
samples.
As Dr = 0, R.C. is 80
Line of
optimums
Dry density, d
d max
90% R.C.
Control
Increase
compaction
energy
wopt
Water content w %
Note:
the
engineering
properties may be different
between
the
compacted
sample at the dry side and at
the wet side.
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
Method
Field control tests, measuring the dry density and water content in the
field can either be destructive or nondestructive.
6.6.1 Destructive
Methods
(a)
Methods
Calculations
(b)
Know Ms and Vt
Get d field and w (water content) (c)
Compare d field with d max-lab and
calculate relative compaction R.C.
Line of
optimums
100% saturation
Known compaction
curves A, B, C
Field check point X
(it should be on the
dry side of optimum)
Dry density, d
Y(no)
B
X
M
C
wopt
Water content w %
6.6.2 Nondestructive
Methods
Nuclear density meter
(a)
Principles
Density
The Gamma radiation is scattered by the soil
particles and the amount of scatter is
proportional to the total density of the material.
The Gamma radiation is typically provided by
the radium or a radioactive isotope of cesium.
(b)
Water content
The water content can be determined based on
the neutron scatter by hydrogen atoms. Typical
neutron sources are americium-beryllium
isotopes.
(c)
7. Estimating Performance of
Compacted Soils
8. Suggested Homework
1. Read Chapter 5 (Holtzs book)
2. Example 5.1 ~ Example 5.4
3. Problem 5.9, 5.12, 5.14
9. References
Main References:
Holtz, R.D. and Kovacs, W.D. (1981). An Introduction to Geotechnical
Engineering, Prentice Hall. (Chapter 5)
Others:
Das, B.M. (1998). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 4th edition,
PWS Publishing Company.
Lambe, T.W. and Whitman, R.V. (1979). Soil Mechanics, SI Version, John
Wiley & Sons.
Schaefer, V. R. (1997). Ground Improvement, Ground Reinforcement,
Ground Treatment, Proceedings of Soil Improvement and
Geosynthetics of The Geo-Institute of the American Society of Civil
Engineers in conjunction with Geo-Logan97. Edited by V.R.
Schaefer.