Capacity and Facilities
Capacity and Facilities
Capacity and Facilities
Investments in facility
capacity are long-term and
cannot be reversed easily
over the period of time
Definitions of Capacity
In general, production capacity is the maximum
production rate of an organization.
Capacity can be difficult to quantify due to
Day-to-day uncertainties such as employee
absences, equipment breakdowns, and
material-delivery delays
Products and services differ in production
rates (so product mix is a factor)
Types of Capacity
Design capacity represents the maximum rate of output that
can be achieved under ideal conditions.
Effective capacity is the maximum rate of output which can be
practically achieved under the constraints of time consumed in
set-ups, oiling & cleaning, defective items, etc. Effective
capacity is always lesser than the design capacity.
Actual capacity is the maximum output rate which is actually
achieved under the constraints of machine breakdowns, labor
inefficiencies & absenteeism, defective products, late deliveries
of materials by the supplier, and so on. Actual capacity can be
equal to or less than the effective capacity.
There are 2 measures of system performance based on these
types of capacity
Efficiency = Actual Output / Effective Capacity
Capacity utilization = Actual Output / Design Capacity
Actual capacity cannot be increased beyond the effective
capacity as it is the maximum limit of actual capacity
Definitions of Capacity
Sustainable practical capacity can be defined as
the greatest level of output that a plant can
maintain
within the framework of a realistic work
schedule
taking account of normal downtime
assuming sufficient availability of inputs to
operate the machinery and equipment in
place
Capacity
Maximum capability to produce
Capacity planning
establishes overall level of productive
resources for a firm
3 basic strategies for timing of capacity
expansion in relation to steady growth in
demand (lead, lag, and average)
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7-8
7-9
Average Capacity S
C expanded to coincide with average
expected demand
Moderate strategy in which managers are
certain that they will be able to sell at least
some portion of expanded output and endure
some periods of unmet demand
Atleast half of the time capacity leads demand
and half of the time C lags demand
Incremental vs One-step Expansion
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
7-10
Capacity
Capacity increase depends on
volume and certainty of anticipated demand
strategic objectives
costs of expansion and operation
Capacity cushion
% of capacity held in reserve for unexpected
occurrences
7-11
Economies of Scale
Best operating level - least average unit cost
Economies of scale - average cost per unit
decreases as the volume increases toward the
best operating level
Diseconomies of scale - average cost per unit
increases as the volume increases beyond the
best operating level
Economies of Scale
Unit cost decreases as output volume increases
fixed costs can be spread over a larger number of
units
production or operating costs do not increase linearly
with output levels
quantity discounts are available for material
purchases
operating efficiency increases as workers gain
experience
7-14
Economies of Scale
Declining costs result from:
Fixed costs being spread over more and more
units
Longer production runs result in a smaller
proportion of labor being allocated to setups
Proportionally less material scrap
and other economies
Diseconomies of Scale
Increasing costs result from increased
congestion of workers and material, which
contributes to:
Increasing inefficiency
Difficulty in scheduling
Damaged goods
Reduced morale
Increased use of overtime
and other diseconomies
7-17
Break-Even Analysis
Computer Simulation
Linear Programming
Decision Tree Analysis
cf
v = p - cv
6-20
Example
Travis and Jeff own Right paddlers, a new start up company with the goal
of designing, making and marketing stand-up paddle boards for streams
and rivers. A new fitness craze, stand-up paddle boards are similar to
surfboards in appearance, but are used by individuals to navigate down
rivers in an upright position with a single long pole (paddle) instaed of
sitting in tubes or rafts and floating down.
The boards are constructed from heavy duty raft material that is inflatable,
rather than the fiberglass material used in surfboards. Unlike surfboards
that market for $500 to $1000 each, paddle boards are typically sold for
between $100 and $400. Since Travis and Jeff are just starting out and
the demand for paddle boards on East Cost has not been firmly
established, they anticipate selling their product for $100 each. Travis
estimates the fixed cost for equipment and space will be $2000 and the
material and labor costs will run $50 per unit. What of demand will be
necessary for Travis and Jeff to break even on their new venture?
6-21
Break-Even Analysis
Fixed cost = cf = $2,000
Variable cost = cv = $50 per unit
Price = p = $100 per unit
Break-even point is
v=
6-22
= 40 units
$3,000
$2,000
$1,000
Total
revenue
line
40
Break-even point
6-23
Units
$10,000
$ 8,000
$ 6,000
$15,000
$18,000
$16,000
$14,000
$12,000
$21,000
d1
d2
d3
Payoffs
Decision Tree
c1
(.4)
10,000
c2
c3
(.2)
(.4)
15,000
c1
(.4)
8,000
c2
c3
(.2)
(.4)
c1
c2
(.4)
(.2)
c3
(.4)
14,000
18,000
12,000
6,000
16,000
21,000
d2
Design A
Design B
Design C
d3
EV = .4(6,000) + .2(16,000) + .4(21,000)
= $14,000
7-30
Facility Layout
Refers to the arrangement of activities,
processes, workstations, storage areas and
common areas within an existing or proposed
facility.
7-31
7-32
7-33
Basic Layouts
Process layouts
group similar activities together according to process or
function they perform
Product layouts
arrange activities in line according to sequence of
operations for a particular product or service
Fixed-position layouts
are used for projects in which product cannot be moved
Hybrid Layouts: Cellular layouts, flexible manufacturing
systems, and mixed-model assembly lines
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Final
Inspection
Underbody
Repairs
Engine
Repairs
Paint
Booth
Car washing
& cleaning
Office
Spare
Parts
Store
Oil
Replacement
Wheel
Alignment
Electrical
Repairs
Interiors,
Door Repairs,
etc.
Dents
Repair
Changeover is rapid
Material flow is intermittent
Material handling equipment is flexible
Operators are highly skilled
. . . more
Work-In-Process
(WIP) Inventory is
usually high in batch
processing
Material handling is
time consuming as no
fixed route is there
Maintenance cost is
low because of low
cost general purpose
machines
Disadvantages
Process
Layout
Advantages
Breakdown of a machine
does not lead to halt in
production as substitute
machines are kept ready for
such situations
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7-42
Car 1
Conveyor
Car 2
Racks containing
steering wheels
subassembly
Workstation 3
Car 3
A high output
rate and, thus,
low cost of item
per unit
No need of routing or
scheduling once the line is
operational (as it is already
done during the design of the
line)
Advantages
Easier material
handling and lesser
inventory costs
Maintenance cost is
fairly high to ensure
smooth running of the
line
High efficiency
of labor &
equipment
Product
Layout
Disadvantages
Inflexible to design
changes in products or
processes (the changes in
line are usually expensive)
Breakdown of a machine or
high absenteeism of workers
leads to halt in production
3
4
A single worker
5
6
A Product Layout
In
Out
7-49
Comparison of Product
and Process Layouts
Description
Description
Type
Type of
of process
process
Product
Product
Demand
Demand
Volume
Volume
Equipment
Equipment
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Product
Process
Sequential
arrangement of
activities
Continuous, mass
production, mainly
assembly
Functional
grouping of
activities
Intermittent, job
shop, batch
production, mainly
fabrication
Varied, made to
order
Fluctuating
Low
General purpose
Standardized,
made to stock
Stable
High
Special purpose
7-50
Comparison of Product
and Process Layouts
Product
Workers
Workers
Inventory
Inventory
Limited skills
Low in-process, high
finished goods
Small
Storage
Storage space
space
Material
Material handling Fixed path (conveyor)
Narrow
Aisles
Aisles
Part of balancing
Scheduling
Scheduling
Layout
Layout decision
decision Line balancing
Equalize work at each
Goal
Goal
station
Efficiency
Advantage
Advantage
Process
Varied skills
High in-process, low
finished goods
Large
Variable path (forklift)
Wide
Dynamic
Machine location
Minimize material
handling cost
Flexibility
7-51
Fixed-Position Layouts
Typical of projects
Fragile, bulky, heavy items
Equipment, workers & materials brought to site
Low equipment utilization
Highly skilled labor
Typically low fixed cost
Often high variable costs
7-52
Raw
Materials
Equipments
Technicians
Computer
Experts
Assemblies
Fuel
Fixed-position Layout
Here the product is very bulky, heavy, large or
has a fixed position
Construction of a building, dam, an aero plane,
ship or a rocket etc.
Machines, equipment, raw materials, workers
etc. have to be taken to the site of the product
Very important is the placement of all these
things inside or around the product so that no
overcrowding takes place
Grid layouts
encourage customer familiarity, are low cost, easy
to clean and secure, and good for repeat customers
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7-56
Line balancing
tries to equalize the amount of work at each
workstation
Precedence requirements
physical restrictions on the order in which operations
are performed
Cycle time
maximum amount of time a product is allowed to
spend at each workstation
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
7-57
Cd =
Cd =
480
120
= 4 minutes
7-58
Relationship Diagramming
based on location preference between areas
use when quantitative data is not available
7-59
Cellular Layouts
1. Combines the flexibility of a process layout
with the efficiency of a product layout
2. Identify families of parts with similar flow paths
3. Group machines into cells based on part
families
4. Arrange cells so material movement is
minimized
5. Locate large shared machines at point of use
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7
8
5
2
12
10
3
11
Raw materials
7-63
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Machines
4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12
x
x
x
x
Figure
5.8
Copyright
2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
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10
12
11
Cell 1
Cell 2
Cell 3
7
A B C
Raw materials
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Cellular Layouts
Advantages
Reduced material handling
and transit time
Reduced setup time
Reduced work-in- process
inventory
Better use of human
resources
Easier to control
Easier to automate
Disadvantages
Inadequate part families
Poorly balanced cells
Expanded training and
scheduling of workers
Increased capital
investment
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7-68
7-69
Line balancing
U-shaped lines
Flexible workforce
Model sequencing
7-70