MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

UNIT V

Machine Tools

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Milling
Introduction

Milling is the process of machining flat, curved, or irregular surfaces by

feeding the work piece against a rotating cutter containing a number of
cutting edges. The usual Mill consists basically of a motor driven spindle,
which mounts and revolves the milling cutter, and a reciprocating adjustable
worktable, which mounts and feeds the work piece.

Milling machines are basically classified as vertical or horizontal. These

machines are also classified as knee-type, ram-type, manufacturing or bed
type, and planer-type. Most milling machines have self-contained electric
drive motors, coolant systems, variable spindle speeds, and power-operated
table feeds

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Milling is a process of producing flat and complex shapes with the use of
multi-tooth cutting tool, which is called a milling cutter and the cutting edges
are called teeth.

The axis of rotation of the cutting tool is perpendicular to the direction of

feed, either parallel or perpendicular to the machined surface. The machine
tool that traditionally performs this operation is called milling machine.

Milling is an interrupted cutting operation in which the teeth of the milling

cutter enter and exit the work during each revolution. This interrupted cutting
action subjects the teeth to a cycle of impact force and thermal shock on
every rotation. The tool material and cutter geometry must be designed to
withstand these conditions. Cutting fluids are essential for most milling
operations.

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Types of milling
There are two basic types of milling
Down (climb) milling, when the cutter rotation is in the same direction as the
motion of the work piece being fed.
up (conventional) milling, in which the work piece is moving towards the
cutter, opposing the cutter direction of rotation

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Comparison of Up and Down Milling

Down milling, the cutting force is directed into the work table, which allows
thinner work parts to be machined. Better surface finish is obtained but the
stress load on the teeth is abrupt, which may damage the cutter.

Up milling, the cutting force tends to lift the work piece. The work
conditions for the cutter are more favorable. Because the cutter does not start
to cut when it makes contact (cutting at zero cut is impossible), the surface
has a natural waviness.

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Milling Operations
Milling of Flat Surfaces
Peripheral Milling

In peripheral milling, also called plain milling, the axis of the cutter is
parallel to the surface being machined, and the operation is performed by
cutting edges on the outside periphery of the cutter. The primary motion is
the rotation of the cutter. The feed is imparted to the work piece.

In peripheral milling the axis of the cutter rotation is parallel to the work
surface to be machined.

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Types of Peripheral Milling

Slab milling

The basic form of peripheral milling in which the cutter width extends
beyond the work piece on both sides

Slotting

Slotting, also called slot milling, in which the width of the cutter, usually
called slotter, is less than the work piece width.

The slotter has teeth on the periphery and over the both end faces. When
only the one-side face teeth are engaged, the operations is known as the
side milling, in which the cutter machines the side of the work piece

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Straddle milling

Straddle milling, which is the same as side milling where cutting takes
place on both sides of the work.

In straddle milling, two slotters mounted on an arbor work together;

When the slotter is very thin, the operation called slitting can be used to
mill narrow slots (slits) or to cut a work part in two.

The slitting cutter (slitter) is narrower than the slotter and has teeth only
on the periphery.

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Peripheral Milling

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Peripheral Milling

A. Slab milling , B. Slot milling , C. Side milling , D.

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Advantages of peripheral milling

More stable holding of the cutter. There is less variation in the arbor torque

Lower power requirements.

Better surface finish.

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Face milling

In face milling, cutter is perpendicular to the machined surface. The cutter

axis is vertical, but in the newer CNC machines it often is horizontal. In face
milling, machining is performed by teeth on both the end and periphery of the
face-milling cutter.

Face milling is usually applied for rough machining of large surfaces. Surface
finish is worse than in peripheral milling, and feed marks are inevitable. One
advantage of the face milling is the high production rate because the cutter
diameter is large and as a result the material removal rate is high. Face
milling with large diameter cutters requires significant machine power.

In Face milling the axis of the cutter rotation is perpendicular to the work
surface to be machined.

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Face milling

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End milling

In end milling, the cutter, called end mill, has a diameter less than the work piece
width. The end mill has helical cutting edges carried over onto the cylindrical cutter
surface are used to produce pockets, closed or end key slots, etc.

End milling operation used to cut a pocket in

an aluminum work part.

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Milling of Complex Surfaces

Milling is one of the few machining operations, which are capable of

machining complex two- and three-dimensional surfaces, typical for dies,
molds, cams, etc. Complex surfaces can be machined either by means of the
cutter path (profile milling and surface contouring), or the cutter shape (form
milling).

Form milling

In form milling, the cutting edges of the peripheral cutter (called form cutter)
have a special profile that is imparted to the work piece. Cutters with various
profiles are available to cut different two-dimensional surfaces. One
important application of form milling is gear manufacturing

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Types of Form Milling
Profile milling

In profile milling, the conventional end mill is used to cut the outside or inside
periphery of a flat part. The end mill works with its peripheral teeth and is fed along a
curvilinear path equidistant from the surface profile.

Surface contouring

The end mill, which is used in surface contouring has a hemispherical end and is
called ball-end mill. The ball-end mill is fed back and forth across the work piece
along a curvilinear path at close intervals to produce complex three-dimensional
surfaces.

Similar to profile milling, surface contouring require relatively simple cutting tool but
advanced, usually computer-controlled feed control system.

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Form Milling

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Surface contouring

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Milling machines

The conventional milling machines provide a primary rotating motion for the cutter
held in the spindle, and a linear feed motion for the work piece, which is fastened
onto the worktable.

Milling machines for machining of complex shapes usually provide both a rotating
primary motion and a curvilinear feed motion for the cutter in the spindle with a
stationary work piece.

Milling Machine Types

Various machine designs are available for various milling operations. In this section
we discuss only the most popular ones, classified into the following types

Column-and-knee milling machines

Bed type milling machines

Machining centers

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Other Classifications
According to nature of purposes of use

General Purpose Milling Machine

Single Purpose Milling Machine

Conventional milling machines, e.g Up and down milling machines

Thread, cam milling machines and slitting machine

Special Purpose Milling Machine

Mass production machines, e.g., duplicating mills, die sinkers, thread

milling etc.

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According to configuration and motion of the work-holding table / bed
Knee type

small and medium duty machines the table with the job/work travels over the bed
(guides) in horizontal (X) and transverse (Y) directions and the bed with the table and
job on it moves vertically (Z) up and down.

Bed type

Usually of larger size and capacity; the vertical feed is given to the milling head
instead of the knee type bed

According to the orientation of the spindle

Horizontal Milling Machine

Vertical milling machine

Horizontal spindle Feed

Vertical Spindle Feed

Universal milling machine

Both Horizontal and Vertical spindle Feed

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Column-and-knee milling machines

The column-and-knee milling machines are the basic machine tool for milling. The
name comes from the fact that this machine has two principal components, a column
that supports the spindle, and a knee that supports the work table.

There are two different types of column-and-knee milling machines according to

position of the spindle axis
Horizontal &Vertical.

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Bed type machines

In bed type milling machines, the worktable is mounted directly on the bed that
replaces the knee. This ensures greater rigidity, thus permitting heavier cutting
conditions and higher productivity. This machines are designed for mass production.

Single-spindle bed machines are called simplex mills and are available in either
horizontal or vertical models. Duplex mills have two spindle heads, and triplex mills
add a third spindle mounted vertically over the bed to further increase machining
capability.

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Machining centers

A machining center is a highly automated machine tool capable of performing

multiple machining operations under CNC control.

The features that make a machining center unique include the following

Tool storage unit called tool magazine that can hold up to 120 different cutting tools.

Automatic tool changer, which is used to exchange cutting tools between the tool
magazine and machining center spindle when required. The tool changer is controlled
by the CNC program.

Automatic work part positioning. Many of machining centers are equipped with a
rotary worktable, which precisely position the part at some angle relative to the
spindle. It permits the cutter to perform machining on four sides of the part.

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Machining center

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Milling Machine Specifications

Horizontal Milling Machine

Vertical Milling Machine

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Milling Machine Specifications

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Milling Machine Specifications

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Milling cutters
Classification of milling cutters according to their design

HSS cutters: Many cutters like end mills, slitting cutters, slab cutters, angular
cutters, form cutters, etc., are made from high-speed steel (HSS).

Brazed cutters: Very limited number of cutters (mainly face mills) are made
with brazed carbide inserts. This design is largely replaced by mechanically
attached cutters.

Mechanically attached cutters: The vast majority of cutters are in this

category. Carbide inserts are either clamped or pin locked to the body of the
milling cutter.

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Milling Cutter Nomenclature

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Milling Cutter Nomenclature

The pitch refers to the angular distance between like or adjacent teeth.

The pitch is determined by the number of teeth. The tooth face is the forward
facing surface of the tooth that forms the cutting edge.

The cutting edge is the angle on each tooth that performs the cutting.

The land is the narrow surface behind the cutting edge on each tooth.

The rake angle is the angle formed between the face of the tooth and the
centerline of the cutter. The rake angle defines the cutting edge and provides
a path for chips that are cut from the workpiece.

The primary clearance angle is the angle of the land of each tooth measured
from a line tangent to the centerline of the cutter at the cutting edge. This
angle prevents each tooth from rubbing against the workpiece after it makes
its cut.

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Milling Cutter Nomenclature

This angle defines the land of each tooth and provides additional clearance
for passage of cutting oil and chips.

The hole diameter determines the size of the arbor necessary to mount the
milling cutter.

Plain milling cutters that are more than 3/4 inch in width are usually made
with spiral or helical teeth. A plain spiral-tooth milling cutter produces a
better and smoother finish and requires less power to operate. A plain helicaltooth milling cutter is especially desirable when milling an uneven surface or
one with holes in it.

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Classification of milling cutters associated with the various milling operations
Profile sharpened cutters

surfaces are not related with the tool shape

Slab or plain milling cutter : straight or helical fluted

Side milling cutters single side or both sided type

Slotting cutter

Slitting or parting tools

End milling cutters with straight or taper shank

Face milling cutters

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Form relieved cutters

Where the job profile becomes the replica of the tool-form

Form cutters

Gear (teeth) milling cutters

Spline shaft cutters

Tool form cutters

T-slot cutters

Thread milling cutter

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Profile sharpened cutters

The profile sharpened cutters are inherently used for making flat surfaces or surface
bounded by a number of flat surfaces only.

Slab or Plain milling cutters

Plain milling cutters are hollow straight HSS cylinder of 40 to 80 mm outer diameter
having 4 to 16 straight or helical equi-spaced flutes or cutting edges and are used in
horizontal arbour to machine flat surface

Machining flat surface by slab milling Cutter

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Side and slot milling cutters
These arbour mounted disc type cutters have a large number of cutting teeth
at equal spacing on the periphery.

Side milling cutters

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End milling cutters
The end milling cutter, also called an end mill, has teeth on the end as well as
the periphery

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Face milling cutter

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Form relieved cutters
Form of the tool is exactly replica of the job-profile to be made
Clearance or flank surfaces of the teeth are spiral shaped instead of flat
Used for making 2-D and 3-D contour surfaces

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T-slot & Gear milling cutters

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Thread milling cutter

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Indexing

Indexing is the process of evenly dividing the circumference of a

circular work piece into equally spaced divisions, such as in cutting
gear teeth, cutting splines, milling grooves in reamers and taps, and
spacing holes on a circle.

The index head of the indexing fixture is used for this purpose.

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Index Head

The index head of the indexing fixture (Figure ) contains an indexing mechanism
which is used to control the rotation of the index head spindle to space or divide a
work piece accurately. A simple indexing mechanism consists of a 40-tooth worm
wheel fastened to the index head spindle, a single-cut worm, a crank for turning the
worm shaft, and an index plate and sector. Since there are 40 teeth in the worm wheel,
one turn of the index crank causes the worm, and consequently, the index head
spindle to make 1/40 of a turn; so 40 turns of the index crank revolve the spindle one
full turn.

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Index Plate
The indexing plate (Figure) is a round plate with a series of six or more
circles of equally spaced holes; the index pin on the crank can be inserted in
any hole in any circle. With the interchangeable plates regularly furnished
with most index heads, the spacing necessary for most gears, bolt heads,
milling cutters, splines, and so forth can be obtained.
Sector
The sector (Figure) indicates the next hole in which the pin is to be inserted
and makes it unnecessary to count holes when moving the index crank after
each cut. It consists of two radial, beveled arms which can be set at any angle
to each other and then moved together around the center of the index plate.

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Index Plate Types

Brown and Sharpe type consists of 3 plates of 6 circles each drilled as

follows:

Plate I - 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 holes

Plate 2 - 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33 holes

Plate 3 - 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49 holes

Cincinnati type consists of one plate drilled on both sides with circles
divided as follows:

First side - 24, 25, 28, 30, 34, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43 holes

Second side - 46, 47, 49, 51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 62, 66 holes

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Indexing Methods
Simple Indexing or Plain Indexing

In simple or plain indexing, an index plate selected for the particular application, is
fitted on the worm shaft and locked through a locking pin

To index the work through any required angle, the index crank pin is withdrawn from
the hole of the index plate than the work is indexed through the required angle by
turning the index crank through a calculated number of whole revolutions and holes on
one of the hole circles, after which the index pin is relocated in the required hole

If the number of turns that the crank must be rotated for each indexing can be found
from the formula

N = 40 / Z

Where

Z - No of divisions or indexings needed on the work

40 No of teeth on the worm wheel attached to the indexing plate, since 40 turns of
the index crank will turn the spindle to one full turn

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Suppose it is desired to mill a gear with eight equally spaced teeth. l/8th of
40 or 5 turns (Since 40 turns of the index crank will turn the spindle one full
turn) of the crank after each cut, will space the gear for 8 teeth. If it is desired
to space equally for 10 teeth, 1/10 of 40 or 4 turns would produce the correct
spacing.

The same principle applies whether or not the divisions required divide
equally into 40. For example, if it is desired to index for 16 divisions, 16
divided into 40 equals 2 8/16 turns. i.e for each indexing we need two
complete rotations of the crank plus 8 more holes on the 16 hole circle of
plate 1(Plate I - 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 holes)

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Direct Indexing

In direct indexing, the index plate is directly mounted on the dividing head spindle
( no worm shaft or wheel)

While indexing, the index crank pin is withdrawn from the hole of the index plate
than the pin is engaged directly after the work and the indexing plate are rotated to
the desire number of holes

In this method fractions of a complete turn of the spindle are limited to those
available with the index plate

Direct indexing is accomplished by an additional index plate fastened to the index

head spindle. A stationary plunger in the index head fits the holes in this index plate.
By moving this plate by hand to index directly, the spindle and the work piece rotate
an equal distance. Direct index plates usually have 24 holes and offer a quick means
of milling squares, hexagons, taps, and so forth. Any number of divisions which is a
factor of 24 can be indexed quickly and conveniently by the direct indexing method.

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Differential Indexing

Sometimes, a number of divisions is required which cannot be obtained by simple

indexing with the index plates regularly supplied. To obtain these divisions, a
differential index head is used. The index crank is connected to the worm shaft by a
train of gears instead of a direct coupling as with simple indexing. The selection of
these gears involves calculations similar to those used in calculating change gear ratio
for lathe thread cutting.

Gear Ratio I = 40/K ( K Z)

Where

K a number very nearly equal to Z

For example if the value of Z is 53, the value of K is 50

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Indexing in Degrees

Work pieces can be indexed in degrees as well as fractions of a turn with the usual
index head. There are 360 degrees in a complete circle and one turn of the index
crank revolves the spindle 1/40 or 9 degrees. Therefore, 1/9 turn of the crank rotates
the spindle 1 degree. Work pieces can therefore be indexed in degrees by using a
circle of holes divisible by 9. For example, moving the crank 2 spaces on an 18-hole
circle, 3 spaces on a 27-hole circle, or 4 spaces on a 36-hole circle will rotate the
spindle 1 degree.

Smaller crank movements further subdivide the circle: moving 1 space on an 18-hole
circle turns the spindle 1/2 degree (30 minutes), 1 space on a 27-hole circle turns the
spindle 1/3 degree (20 minutes), and so forth.

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Indexing in Degrees

Work pieces can be indexed in degrees as well as fractions of a turn with the usual
index head. There are 360 degrees in a complete circle and one turn of the index
crank revolves the spindle 1/40 or 9 degrees. Therefore, 1/9 turn of the crank rotates
the spindle 1 degree. Work pieces can therefore be indexed in degrees by using a
circle of holes divisible by 9. For example, moving the crank 2 spaces on an 18-hole
circle, 3 spaces on a 27-hole circle, or 4 spaces on a 36-hole circle will rotate the
spindle 1 degree.

Smaller crank movements further subdivide the circle: moving 1 space on an 18-hole
circle turns the spindle 1/2 degree (30 minutes), 1 space on a 27-hole circle turns the
spindle 1/3 degree (20 minutes), and so forth.

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Indexing Problems

Refer P.C. Sharma Vol-II, Page No 157 to 162

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