The Foundations: Logic and Proofs: Chapter 1, Part I: Propositional Logic

http://fskik.upsi.edu.
my
The Foundations: Logic and

Proofs
Chapter 1, Part I: Propositional Logic

http://fskik.upsi.edu.my
Chapter Summary
Propositional Logic
The Language of Propositions
Applications
Logical Equivalences
Predicate Logic
The Language of Quantifiers
Nested Quantifiers
Proofs
Rules of Inference
Proof Methods
Proof Strategy
Propositional Logic Summary

The Language of Propositions
Connectives
Truth Values
Truth Tables
Applications
Translating English Sentences
System Specifications
Logic Puzzles
Logic Circuits
Important Equivalences
Showing Equivalence
Satisfiability
Propositional Logic
Section 1.1
Section Summary
Propositions
Connectives
Negation
Conjunction
Disjunction
Implication; contrapositive, inverse, converse
Biconditional
Truth Tables
Why study logic?

To understand mathematical reasoning.
The rules of logic give precise meaning to mathematical

statements.
distinguish between valid and invalid arguments.
Computer science:
to design computer circuits.
to construct computer programs.
to verify the correctness of programs.
Logic
Logic is a study of reasoning.
Logic examines general forms which arguments
may take, which forms are valid, and which are
fallacies.
Axiomatic concepts in math:
Equals
Opposite
Truth and falsehood
Statement
Objects
Collections
Logic
We intuitively know that Truth and Falsehood are
opposites. That statements describe the world
and can be true/false. That the world is made
up of objects and that objects can be organized
to form collections.
The foundations of logic mimic our intuitions by

setting down constructs that behave
analogously.
Logic True, False, Statement

Axiom: False is the opposite to Truth.
A statement is a description of something.
Examples of statements:
Im 31 years old.
I have 17 children.
I always tell the truth.
Im lying to you.
Qs: Which statements are True? False? Both?

Neither?

Answers:
True : Im 31 years old.

False : I have 17 children.
I always tell the truth.
Both: IMPOSSIBLE, by our Axiom.

Neither: Im lying to you. (If viewed on its own)
HUH? Well suppose that
S = Im lying to you.
were true. In particular, I am actually lying, so S is
false. So its both true and false, impossible by the
Axiom.
Okay, so I guess S must be false. But then I must not
be lying to you. So the statement is true. Again its
both true and false.
In both cases we get the opposite of our assumption,
so S is neither true nor false.
Propositions
To avoid painful head-aches, we ban such silly
non-sense and avoid the most general type of
statements limiting ourselves to statements
with valid truth-values instead.
Use propositions to encounter these problems.

Propositions
Basic building blocks of logic.
Propositions a statement / declarative
sentence (sentence that declares a fact) which is
either TRUE or FALSE, but not BOTH. It may also
change according to certain circumstances (ex:
Today is Friday).
Atomic proposition a statement with none
values (statements without first having to
determine the truth or falsity of other
propositions)
Propositions
Examples of propositions:
a) The Moon is made of green cheese.
b) Trenton is the capital of New Jersey.
c) Melaka is the capital of Malaysia.
d) 1+0=1
e) 0+0=2
Examples that are not propositions.
a) Sit down!
b) What time is it?
c) x+1=2
d) x+y=z
Propositions
The value of a proposition is called TRUTH VALUE
(T/1, F/O).
p q p q
p p 1 1 T T
1 T 1 0 T F
or 0 1
or F T
0 F
0 0 F F
Opinions, interrogative and imperative sentences

are NOT propositions.
Propositions - Opinions
Opinions:
1. I think we should follow this way.

2. You should bring along your umbrella to class.

Propositions Interrogative Statement

Interrogative statement:
- who, whom, whose, what, when, where, why,
which, how.
- Question tag: doesnt he?
1. Do you love me?
2. Who used my computer?
3. Which color that suits me best?
4. She loves chatting, doesnt she?
5. You didnt abuse drugs, did you?
Propositions Imperative Sentence

Imperative sentence:
Propositions Examples
Examples:
1. 2 + 3 = 5.
2. 4 * 4 = 8.
3. Perak is the capital of Malaysia.
4. There are 12 months a year.
Propositions Examples
Answers:
1. 2 + 3 = 5. (True)
2. 4 * 4 = 8. (False)
3. Perak is the capital of Malaysia. (False)
4. There are 12 months a year. (True)
Propositions Exercise 1
Consider the following sentences:
1. What time is it?

2. When is the pretest?
3. How many students are in the class?
4. Do your homework.
5. Please close the door.
6. Do not spit out of the bus.
Consider the following sentences:
7. Java is the best programming language.

8. x + 1 = 2.
9. x + y = z.
Answers:
Questions 1 3
Not propositions because it is not a declarative sentences. It is a question.
Questions 4 6
Not propositions because it is not a declarative sentences. It is an order.
Question 7
Not propositions because it is not a declarative sentences. It is a statement
(either True, False, or Both).
Questions 8 9
Not propositions because it is neither True or False. No initial value for x, y
and z.
Friday is the day after Thursday.
It is raining.
The grass is green.
The sun orbits the earth.
Please close the windows.
I am happy.
10 < 15.
x + 7 = 10 where x = 3.
Propositional Logic/Variables
(Statement Variables)
Variables that represent atomic propositions such
as p, q, r, s, .
The truth value of a proposition is true, denoted

by T.
The truth value of a proposition is false, denoted

by F.
Propositional logic (propositional calculas) is a static
discipline of statements which lack semantic content.
the study of how simple propositions can come
together to make more complicated propositions.
If the simple propositions were endowed with some

meaning and they will be very soon then the
complicated proposition would have meaning as well,
and then finding out the truth value is actually
important!
Constructing Propositions
Propositional Variables: p, q, r, s,
The proposition that is always true is denoted by T and
the proposition that is always false is denoted by F.
Compound Propositions; constructed from logical
connectives and other propositions
Negation
Conjunction
Disjunction
Implication
Biconditional
Exclusive OR
Logical Connectives/Operators
Connectives or operators are used to create a
compound proposition from two or more other
propositions.
Negation.
Conjunction/logical conjunction/and.
Disjunction/logical disjunction/or.
Exclusive or/XOR.
Implication/imply.
Biconditional.
Logical Connectives/Operators
Operator Symbol Usage
Negation not
Conjunction and
Disjunction or
Exclusive or xor
Conditional if,then
Biconditional iff
Example
Example 1:
p = Tun Dr. Mahathir was the prime

minister.
q = The list of Malaysian prime ministers
includes Tun Dr. Mahathir.
r = Lions like to sleep.
All p and q are no more closely related than q and r are, in

propositional calculus. They are both equally related as all
three statements are true. Semantically, however, p and q
are the same!
Compound Propositions
Compound propositions
combining one or more propositions using

logical operators/connectives to construct
mathematical statements/ propositional
molecules.
Compound Propositions - Example

p = Ferry only sails on sea.
q = Ferry sails in Penang Island.
r = Penang Island is a sea.
r = Penang Island is not a sea.
pq = Ferry only sails on sea and sails in Penang
Island.
pq r = If ferry only sails on sea and sails in
Penang Island, then the Penang Island is a sea.
Compound Propositions: Negation

A proposition can be negated.
Negation just turns a false proposition to true and vice versa.
It is not the case that p
Example:
p = 23 = 15 +7
p happens to be false, so p is true.


The negation of a proposition p is denoted by p
and has this truth table:
p p
T F
F T
Example: If p denotes The earth is round.,

then p denotes It is not the case that the
earth is round, or more simply The earth is
not round.

Negation is a unary operator (the only non-trivial
one possible).
Logical operators are defined by truth tables.
tables which give the output of the operator
in the right-most column.
p p p p
1 0 T F
0 1 or F T

Exercise:
p = Today is Monday.
Find p.
1. Today is not Monday.

2. It is not the case that today is Monday.

Exercise:
Find the negation of the proposition.
Shahruls smartphone has at least 32GB of

memory.

Answers:
It is not the case that Shahruls smartphone has at

least 32GB of memory.
Shahruls smartphone does not have at least 32GB of

memory.
Shahruls smartphone has less than 32GB of

memory.

Find the negation of the proposition
i. Michaels PC runs Linux and express this in
simple English.
ii. Vandanas smartphone has at least 32 GB of

memory and express this in simple English.
Conjunction
Conjunction is a binary operator in that it operates on two
propositions when creating compound proposition.
Conjunction is supposed to encapsulate what happens

when we use the word and in English.
In logic, the word but is sometimes used instead of

and.
The sun is shining, but it is raining.
The sun is shining, and it is raining
Conjunction
For p and q to be true, it must be the case
that BOTH p is true, as well as q.
If one of these is false, than the compound

statement is false as well.
Conjunction
Example:
1. Athifs cat is dead and Athifs cat is not dead.

2. It is raining and it is warm.
3. (2 + 3 = 5) (2 < 2).
Conjunction
The conjunction of propositions p and q is
denoted by p q and has this truth table:
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example: If p denotes I am at home. and q

denotes It is raining. then p q denotes I am at
home and it is raining.
Conjunction
p q pq p q pq
1 1 1 T T T
1 0 0 T F F
0 1 0 F T F
0 0 0 F F F
Conjunction - Exercise
Exercise:
p = Today is Monday.
q = Tomorrow is Friday.
r = 3 + 5 = 8
Assuming p and r are true, while q false.

Out of pq, pr, qr which is true?
Disjunction
Conversely, disjunction is true when at least one
of the components is true.
The disjunction of propositions p and q is
denoted by p q.
Example: If p denotes I am at home. and q
denotes It is raining. then p q denotes I am
at home or it is raining.
Disjunction
p q pq p Q pq
1 1 1 T T T
1 0 1 T F T
0 1 1 F T T
0 0 0 F F F
Disjunction - Example
Example:
Students who have taken discrete or computer
science can take this class.
- Take both (T T = T).
- Take discrete (T F = T).
- Take computer science (F T = T).
- Not taken (F F = F).
Disjunction - Exercise
Find the conjunction of the propositions p and
q where p is proposition Rebeccas PC has
more than 16 GB free hard disk space and q
is proposition The processor in Rebeccas PC
runs faster than 1 GHz.
The Connective Or in English

In English or has two distinct meanings.
Inclusive Or - In the sentence Students who have taken MTK3013
or MTS3073 may take this class, we assume that students need to
have taken one of the prerequisites, but may have taken both. This is
the meaning of disjunction. For p q to be true, either one or both
of p and q must be true.
p q p q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Disjunction : Caveat
Note: English version of disjunction or does
not always satisfy the assumption that one of p/q
being true implies that p or q is true.
Q: Can someone come up with an example?

Disjunction : Caveat
A: The entre is served with
soup or salad.
Most restaurants definitely dont allow you to

get both soup and salad so that the statement is
false when both soup and salad is served.
To address this situation, exclusive-or is

introduced next.
Exclusive Or (XOR)
XOR of two propositions is true when exactly
one of its propositions is true and the other one
is false.
Example:
1. The circuit is either is on or off.

2. You may have cake or ice cream, but not both.
3. Let ab < 0, then either a< 0 or b < 0 but not
both.
Exclusive Or (XOR)
p q P q p q P q
1 1 0 T T F
1 0 1 T F T
0 1 1 F T T
0 0 0 F F F
Note:
In this course any usage of or will connote the
logical operator as opposed to the exclusive-or.
Exclusive Or (XOR) - Example

Example:
Students who have taken discrete or computer

science, but not both, can enroll in this class.
- Take both (T T = F).

- Take discrete (T F = T).
- Take computer science (F T = T).
- Not taken (F F = F).
Exclusive Or (XOR) - Example

Rebeccas PC has more than 16 GB free hard
disk space or the processor in Rebeccas PC
runs faster than 1 GHz
Conditional (Implication)
The proposition that is false when p is true and
q is false and true otherwise.
p = hypothesis/antecedent/premise
q = conclusion/ consequence.
DEF: p q is true if q is true, or if p is false. In

the final case (p is true while q is false) p q is
false.
This one is probably the least intuitive. Its only
partly akin to the English usage of if,then or
implies.
Semantics: p implies q is true if one can
mathematically derive q from p.
Example:
1. If it rains, the grass gets wet.
2. If the sprinklers operate, the grass gets wet.
3. If you buy your air ticket in advance, then it is
cheaper.
In p q there does not need to be any connection between the
antecedent or the consequent. The meaning of p q depends
only on the truth values of p and q.
These implications are perfectly fine, but would not
be used in ordinary English.
If the moon is made of green cheese, then I have more
money than Bill Gates.
If the moon is made of green cheese then Im on welfare.
If 1 + 1 = 3, then your grandma wears combat boots.
The implication p q can be equivalently read
as:
if p then q
p implies q
if p, q
p only if q
q if p
q when p
The implication p q can be equivalently read
as:
q whenever p
p is a sufficient condition for q
q is a necessary condition for p
q follows from p
Different Ways of Expressing p q
if p, then q p implies q
if p, q p only if q
q unless p q when p
q if p q when p
q whenever p p is sufficient for q
q follows from p q is necessary for p
a necessary condition for p is q

a sufficient condition for q is p
Some of the ways reverse the order of p and q
but have the same connotation:
q if p. q whenever p. q is necessary for p.
To aid in remembering these, I suggest inserting

is true after every variable:
Example: p is true only if q is true.

p q P q p q P q
T T T
1 1 1
1 0 0 T F F
0 1 1 F T T
0 0 1 F F T
Example 1:
If I am elected, then I will lower taxes.
- Elected, lower taxes (T T = T)

- Elected, not lower taxes (T F = F)
- Not elected, lower taxes (F T = T)
- Not elected, not lower taxes (F F = T)
Example 2:
If you get 100% on the final, then you will get an A.
- Get 100%, get A (T T = T)

- Not get 100%, may or may not receive an A depending on
other factors.
- Not get 100%, not get A, cheated (F F = T)
One way to view the logical conditional is to think of an
obligation or contract.
If I am elected, then I will lower taxes.
If you get 100% on the final, then you will get an A.
If the politician is elected and does not lower taxes, then

the voters can say that he or she has broken the
campaign pledge. Something similar holds for the
professor. This corresponds to the case where p is true
and q is false.
Exercise:
Which of the following implications is true?
1. If -1 is a positive number, then 2 + 2 = 5.
2. If -1 is a positive number, then 2 + 2 = 4.
3. If sin x = 0, then x = 0.
Answers:
Question 1 2:
True: The hypothesis is obviously false, thus no matter what

the conclusion, the implication holds.
Answers:
Question 3:
False: x can be any multiple of , for example if we let x = 2

then clearly sin x = 0, but x 0.
The implication if sin x = 0 then x = k for some integer k is

True.
Why F F is True?
Remember, all of these are mathematical
constructs, not attempts to mimic English.
Mathematically, p should imply q whenever it is
possible to derive q by from p by using valid
arguments.
For example consider the mathematical analog
of no. 4:
If 0 = 1 then 3 = 9.
Q: Is this true mathematically?
Why F F is True?
A: YES mathematically and YES by the truth table.
Heres a mathematical proof:

1. 0 = 1 (assumption)
Why F F is True?
A: YES mathematically and YES by the truth table.
Heres a mathematical proof:

1. 0 = 1 (assumption)
2. 1 = 2 (added 1 to both sides)
3. 3 = 6 (multiplied both sides by 3)
4. 0 = 3 (multiplied no. 1 by 3)
5. 3 = 9 (added no. 3 and no. 4) QED
Why F F is True?
As we want the conditional to make sense in
the semantic context of mathematics, we
better define it as we have!
Other questionable rows of the truth table can

also be justified in a similar manner.
Converse, Contrapositive, and Inverse

From p q we can form new conditional statements .
q p is the converse of p q
q p is the contrapositive of p q
p q is the inverse of p q
Example: Find the converse, inverse, and contrapositive
of It raining is a sufficient condition for my not going
to town.
Solution:
converse: If I do not go to town, then it is raining.
inverse: If it is not raining, then I will go to town.
contrapositive: If I go to town, then it is not raining.
Biconditional
If p and q are propositions, then we can form the biconditional
proposition p q , read as p if and only if q . The biconditional
p q denotes the proposition with this truth table:
p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
If p denotes I am at home. and q denotes It is raining. then

p q denotes I am at home if and only if it is raining.
Biconditional
For p q to be true, p and q must have
the same truth value.
Else, p q is false:
p q P q p q P q
1 1 1 T T T
1 0 0 T F F
0 1 0 F T F
0 0 1 F F T
p q pq q p P q
1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
Biconditional
Some common or alternative ways p if and
only if q is expressed in English:
p if and only if q
p is necessary and sufficient for q
if p then q, and conversely
p iff q
Biconditional
Example:
You can take the flight if and only if you

buy a ticket.
Biconditional
Examples:
1. x > 0 if and only if x is positive.
2. The alarm goes off iff a burglar breaks in.
3. You may have pudding if and only if you

eat your meat.
Biconditional
Exercises:
1. x + y = 0 if and only if x = 0 and y = 0.
2. 2 + 2 = 4 if and only if 2 < 2.
3. x 0 if and only if x 0.
Biconditional
Answers:
Questions 1 -2
True: Both implications hold.
Question 3
False: The converse holds. That is if x 0
then x 0. However the implication is
false; consider x = -1. Then the hypothesis
is true, 1 0 but the conclusion fails.
Biconditional
Q : Which operator is the opposite of?
A : has exactly the opposite truth table as .
Q: Could we define all other logical operations

using only negation and exclusive or?
A: No. Notice that and each maintain parity
between truth and false; no matter what combination
of these symbols, impossible to get a truth table with
four output rows consisting of 3 Ts and 1 F (such as
implication and disjunction).
Truth Tables For Compound Propositions
Construction of a truth table:

Rows
Need a row for every possible combination of values for
the atomic propositions.
Columns
Need a column for the compound proposition (usually at
far right)
Need a column for the truth value of each expression that
occurs in the compound proposition as it is built up.
This includes the atomic propositions
Example Truth Table

Construct a truth table for
p q r r pq p q r
T T T F T F
T T F T T T
T F T F T F
T F F T T T
F T T F T F
F T F T T T
F F T F F T
F F F T F T
Example Truth Table

Construct the truth table for the following
compound proposition:
((p q) q)
1. Count the atomic propositions/variables.

2. Use the formula 2.
3. Draw the rows and columns.
4. Input the truth value.
Example Truth Table

p q p q q ((p q) q)
0
Example Truth Table

p q p q q ((p q) q)
1 1
1 0
0 1
0 0
Example Truth Table

p q p q q ((p q) q)
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
Example Truth Table

p q p q q ((p q) q)
1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
Example Truth Table

p q p q q ((p q) q)
1 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
Equivalent Propositions
Two propositions are equivalent if they always
have the same truth value.
Example: Show using a truth table that the
biconditional is equivalent to the contrapositive.
Solution:
p q p q p q q p
T T F F T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
Using a Truth Table to Show Non-

Equivalence
Example: Show using truth tables that neither
the converse nor inverse of an implication are
not equivalent to the implication.
Solution:
p q p q p q p q qp
T T F F T T T
T F F T F T T
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T
Problem
How many rows are there in a truth table with n
propositional variables?
Solution: 2n We will see how to do this in

Chapter 6.
Note that this means that with n propositional

variables, we can construct 2n distinct (i.e., not
equivalent) propositions.
Precedence of Logical Operators

Operator Precedence
1
2
3
4
5
p q r is equivalent to (p q) r
If the intended meaning is p (q r )
then parentheses must be used.
Applications of Propositional
Logic
Section 1.2
Applications of Propositional Logic:

Summary
Translating English to Propositional Logic
Boolean Searching
Logic Puzzles
Logic Circuits
AI Diagnosis Method (Optional)
Translating English Sentences

Steps to convert an English sentence to a
statement in propositional logic
Identify atomic propositions and represent using
propositional variables.
Determine appropriate logical connectives
If I go to Harrys or to the country, I will not go
shopping.
p: I go to Harrys
q: I go to the country. If p or q then not r.
r: I will go shopping.
Example
Problem: Translate the following sentence into
propositional logic:
You can access the Internet from campus only if you
are a computer science major or you are not a
freshman.
One Solution: Let a, c, and f represent respectively
You can access the internet from campus, You are
a computer science major, and You are a
freshman.
a (c f )
System and Software engineers take requirements in
English and express them in a precise specification
language based on logic.
Example: Express in propositional logic:
The automated reply cannot be sent when the file
system is full
Solution: One possible solution: Let p denote The
automated reply can be sent and q denote The file
system is full.
q p
Consistent System Specifications

Definition: A list of propositions is consistent if it
is possible to assign truth values to the
proposition variables so that each proposition is
true.
Exercise: Are these specifications consistent?
The diagnostic message is stored in the buffer or it is retransmitted.
The diagnostic message is not stored in the buffer.
If the diagnostic message is stored in the buffer, then it is retransmitted.
Solution: Let p denote The diagnostic message is not stored in the buffer. Let
q denote The diagnostic message is retransmitted The specification can be
written as: p q, p q, p. When p is false and q is true all three
statements are true. So the specification is consistent.
What if The diagnostic message is not retransmitted is added.
Solution: Now we are adding q and there is no satisfying assignment. So the
specification is not consistent.
Logic Puzzles
An island has two kinds of inhabitants, knights, who always tell the truth,
and knaves, who always lie.
You go to the island and meet A and B. Raymond
Smullyan
A says B is a knight.
(Born
B says The two of us are of opposite types. 1919)
Example: What are the types of A and B?
Solution: Let p and q be the statements that A is a knight and B is a knight,
respectively. So, then p represents the proposition that A is a knave and
q that B is a knave.
If A is a knight, then p is true. Since knights tell the truth, q must also be true.
Then (p q) ( p q) would have to be true, but it is not. So, A is not a
knight and therefore p must be true.
If A is a knave, then B must not be a knight since knaves always lie. So, then
both p and q hold since both are knaves.
Logic Circuits
(Studied in depth in Chapter 12)
Electronic circuits; each input/output signal can be viewed as a 0 or 1.
0 represents False
1 represents True
Complicated circuits are constructed from three basic circuits called gates.
The inverter (NOT gate)takes an input bit and produces the negation of that bit.
The OR gate takes two input bits and produces the value equivalent to the disjunction of the two
bits.
The AND gate takes two input bits and produces the value equivalent to the conjunction of the two
bits.
More complicated digital circuits can be constructed by combining these basic circuits to
produce the desired output given the input signals by building a circuit for each piece of the
output expression and then combining them. For example:
Diagnosis of Faults in an Electrical

System (Optional)
AI Example (from Artificial Intelligence:
Foundations of Computational Agents by David
Poole and Alan Mackworth, 2010)
Need to represent in propositional logic the
features of a piece of machinery or circuitry that
are required for the operation to produce
observable features. This is called the Knowledge
Base (KB).
We also have observations representing the
features that the system is exhibiting now.
Electrical System Diagram (optional)

Outside
s1 cb1 Power
Have lights (l1, l2),

w1 wires (w0, w1, w2, w3,
w3 w4), switches (s1, s2,
w2 s3), and circuit
breakers (cb1)
s2 s3
The next page gives the
w0 w4 knowledge base
describing the circuit and
the current observations.
l1
l2
Representing the Electrical System in

Propositional Logic
We need to represent our common-sense
understanding of how the electrical system works in
propositional logic.
For example: If l1 is a light and if l1 is receiving
current, then l1 is lit.
lit_l1 light_l1 live_l1 ok_l1
Also: If w1 has current, and switch s2 is in the up
position, and s2 is not broken, then w0 has current.
live_w0 live_w1 up_s2 ok_s2
This task of representing a piece of our common-sense
world in logic is a common one in logic-based AI.
Knowledge Base (opt)

live_outside We have outside power.
light_l1 Both l1 and l2 are lights.
light_l2
live_l1 live_w0
live_w0 live_w1 up_s2 ok_s2 If s2 is ok and s2 is in a
live_w0 live_w2 down_s2 ok_s2 down position and w2 has
live_w1 live_w3 up_s1 ok_s1 current, then w0 has
current.
live_w2 live_w3 down_s1 ok_s1
live_l2 live_w4
live_w4 live_w3 up_s3 ok_s3
live_w3 live_outside ok_cb1
Observations (opt)
Observations need to be added to the KB
Both Switches up
up_s1
up_s2
Both lights are dark
lit_l1
lit_l2
Diagnosis (opt)
We assume that the components are working ok, unless we are
forced to assume otherwise. These atoms are called assumables.
The assumables (ok_cb1, ok_s1, ok_s2, ok_s3, ok_l1, ok_l2)
represent the assumption that we assume that the switches, lights,
and circuit breakers are ok.
If the system is working correctly (all assumables are true), the
observations and the knowledge base are consistent (i.e.,
satisfiable).
The augmented knowledge base is clearly not consistent if the
assumables are all true. The switches are both up, but the lights
are not lit. Some of the assumables must then be false. This is the
basis for the method to diagnose possible faults in the system.
A diagnosis is a minimal set of assumables which must be false to
explain the observations of the system.
Diagnostic Results (opt)

See Artificial Intelligence: Foundations of Computational Agents (by David
Poole and Alan Mackworth, 2010) for details on this problem and how the
method of consistency based diagnosis can determine possible diagnoses for
the electrical system.
The approach yields 7 possible faults in the system. At least one of these must
hold:
Circuit Breaker 1 is not ok.
Both Switch 1 and Switch 2 are not ok.
Both Switch 1 and Light 2 are not ok.
Both Switch 2 and Switch 3 are not ok.
Both Switch 2 and Light 2 are not ok.
Both Light 1 and Switch 3 are not ok.
Both Light 1 and Light 2 are not ok.
Propositional Equivalences
Section 1.3
Section Summary
Tautologies, Contradictions, and Contingencies.
Logical Equivalence
Important Logical Equivalences
Showing Logical Equivalence
Normal Forms (optional, covered in exercises in
text)
Disjunctive Normal Form
Conjunctive Normal Form
Propositional Satisfiability
Sudoku Example
Tautologies, Contradictions, and

Contingencies
A tautology is a proposition which is always true.
Example: p p
A contradiction is a proposition which is always false.
Example: p p
A contingency is a proposition which is neither a
tautology nor a contradiction, such as p
P p p p p p
T F T F
F T T F
Logically Equivalent
Two compound propositions p and q are logically equivalent if pq is a
tautology.
We write this as pq or as pq where p and q are compound
propositions.
Two compound propositions p and q are equivalent if and only if the
columns in a truth table giving their truth values agree.
This truth table show p q is equivalent to p q.
p q p p q p q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
Exercises:
Are (p r) v (q r ) and (p q) r logically equivalent? Prove it using
truth table.
p q r pr qr (p r) v (q r ) pq (p q) r
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1 1
1 1
1 0
1 0
0 1
0 1
0 0
0 0
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
Exercises:
Show that (p q) q is a tautology? Prove it using truth table.
p q pq (p q) q
1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1
De Morgans Laws
Augustus De Morgan
1806-1871
This truth table shows that De Morgans Second Law holds.

p q p q (pq) (pq) pq
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T
Key Logical Equivalences

Identity Laws: ,
Domination Laws: ,
Idempotent laws: ,
Double Negation Law:
Negation Laws: ,
Key Logical Equivalences (cont)

Commutative Laws:
Associative Laws:
Distributive Laws:
Absorption Laws:
More Logical Equivalences

Constructing New Logical

Equivalences
We can show that two expressions are logically
equivalent by developing a series of logically
equivalent statements.
To prove that we produce a series of
equivalences beginning with A and ending with B.
Keep in mind that whenever a proposition

(represented by a propositional variable) occurs in the
equivalences listed earlier, it may be replaced by an
arbitrarily complex compound proposition.
Equivalence Proofs
Example: Show that
is logically equivalent to
Solution:
Equivalence Proofs
Example: Show that
is a tautology.
Solution:
Equivalence Proofs
Show that ( p q )and p q are

logically equivalence
Show that ( p ( p q )) and p q

are logically equivalence.
Disjunctive Normal Form (optional)

A propositional formula is in disjunctive normal form
if it consists of a disjunction of (1, ,n) disjuncts
where each disjunct consists of a conjunction of (1,
, m) atomic formulas or the negation of an atomic
formula.
Yes
No
Disjunctive Normal Form is important for the circuit
design methods discussed in Chapter 12.

Example: Show that every compound proposition can be put in
disjunctive normal form.
Solution: Construct the truth table for the proposition. Then an
equivalent proposition is the disjunction with n disjuncts
(where n is the number of rows for which the formula
evaluates to T). Each disjunct has m conjuncts where m is the
number of distinct propositional variables. Each conjunct
includes the positive form of the propositional variable if the
variable is assigned T in that row and the negated form if the
variable is assigned F in that row. This proposition is in
disjunctive normal from.

Example: Find the Disjunctive Normal Form
(DNF) of
(pq)r
Solution: This proposition is true when r is false

or when both p and q are false.
( p q) r
Conjunctive Normal Form (optional)

A compound proposition is in Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF)
if it is a conjunction of disjunctions.
Every proposition can be put in an equivalent CNF.
Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF) can be obtained by
eliminating implications, moving negation inwards and using
the distributive and associative laws.
Important in resolution theorem proving used in artificial
Intelligence (AI).
A compound proposition can be put in conjunctive normal
form through repeated application of the logical equivalences
covered earlier.
Conjunctive Normal Form (optional)

Example: Put the following into CNF:
Solution:
1. Eliminate implication signs:
2. Move negation inwards; eliminate double negation:
3. Convert to CNF using associative/distributive laws

Propositional Satisfiability
A compound proposition is satisfiable if there
is an assignment of truth values to its
variables that make it true. When no such
assignments exist, the compound proposition
is unsatisfiable.
A compound proposition is unsatisfiable if and
only if its negation is a tautology.
Questions on Propositional
Satisfiability
Example: Determine the satisfiability of the following
compound propositions:
Solution: Satisfiable. Assign T to p, q, and r.
Solution: Satisfiable. Assign T to p and F to q.
Solution: Not satisfiable. Check each possible assignment of

truth values to the propositional variables and none will make
the proposition true.
Notation
Needed for the next example.

Sudoku
A Sudoku puzzle is represented by a 99 grid made
up of nine 33 subgrids, known as blocks. Some of
the 81 cells of the puzzle are assigned one of the
numbers 1,2, , 9.
The puzzle is solved by assigning numbers to each
blank cell so that every row, column and block
contains each of the nine possible numbers.
Example
Encoding as a Satisfiability Problem

Let p(i,j,n) denote the proposition that is true
when the number n is in the cell in the ith row
and the jth column.
There are 99 9 = 729 such propositions.
In the sample puzzle p(5,1,6) is true, but
p(5,j,6) is false for j = 2,3,9
Encoding (cont)
For each cell with a given value, assert p(d,j,n), when
the cell in row i and column j has the given value.
Assert that every row contains every number.
Assert that every column contains every number.

Encoding (cont)
Assert that each of the 3 x 3 blocks contain every
number.
(this is tricky - ideas from chapter 4 help)

Assert that no cell contains more than one number.
Take the conjunction over all values of n, n, i, and j,
where each variable ranges from 1 to 9 and ,
of
Solving Satisfiability Problems

To solve a Sudoku puzzle, we need to find an assignment of
truth values to the 729 variables of the form p(i,j,n) that
makes the conjunction of the assertions true. Those
variables that are assigned T yield a solution to the puzzle.
A truth table can always be used to determine the
satisfiability of a compound proposition. But this is too
complex even for modern computers for large problems.
There has been much work on developing efficient
methods for solving satisfiability problems as many
practical problems can be translated into satisfiability
problems.
Bit Strings
Electronic computers achieve their calculations
inside semiconducting materials.
For reliability, only two stable voltage states are

used and so the most fundamental operations
are carried out by switching voltages between
these two stable states.
Bit Strings
In logic, only two truth values are allowed. Thus
propositional logic is ideal for modeling
computers.
High voltage values are modeled by True, which

for brevity we call the number 1, while low
voltage values are modeled by False or 0.
Bit Strings
Thus voltage memory stored in a computer can
be represented by a sequence of 0s and 1s such
as:
01 1011 0010 1001
Another portion of the memory might look like
as follows:
10 0010 1111 1001
Each of the number in the sequence is called a
bit, and the whole sequence of bits is called a bit
string.
Bit Strings
It turns out that the analogs of the logical
operations can be carried out quite easily inside the
computer, one bit at a time.
This can then be transferred to whole bit strings.
Example, the exclusive-or of the previous bit strings
is:
01 1011 0010 1001

10 0010 1111 1001
11 1001 1101 0000

The Foundations: Logic and Proofs: Chapter 1, Part I: Propositional Logic

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Foundations: Logic and Proofs: Chapter 1, Part I: Propositional Logic

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Foundations: Logic and Proofs: Chapter 1, Part I: Propositional Logic

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

http://fskik.upsi.edu.

The Foundations: Logic and

Chapter 1, Part I: Propositional Logic

Propositional Logic Summary

Why study logic?

The rules of logic give precise meaning to mathematical

The foundations of logic mimic our intuitions by

Logic True, False, Statement

Qs: Which statements are True? False? Both?

Logic True, False, Statement

True : Im 31 years old.

Logic True, False, Statement

Use propositions to encounter these problems.

Opinions, interrogative and imperative sentences

1. I think we should follow this way.

Propositions Interrogative Statement

Propositions Imperative Sentence

1. What time is it?

7. Java is the best programming language.

The truth value of a proposition is true, denoted

The truth value of a proposition is false, denoted

If the simple propositions were endowed with some

p = Tun Dr. Mahathir was the prime

All p and q are no more closely related than q and r are, in

combining one or more propositions using

Compound Propositions - Example

Compound Propositions: Negation

It is not the case that p

p happens to be false, so p is true.

Compound Propositions: Negation

Example: If p denotes The earth is round.,

Compound Propositions: Negation

Compound Propositions: Negation

1. Today is not Monday.

Compound Propositions: Negation

Find the negation of the proposition.

Shahruls smartphone has at least 32GB of

Compound Propositions: Negation

It is not the case that Shahruls smartphone has at

Shahruls smartphone does not have at least 32GB of

Shahruls smartphone has less than 32GB of

Compound Propositions: Negation

ii. Vandanas smartphone has at least 32 GB of

Conjunction is supposed to encapsulate what happens

In logic, the word but is sometimes used instead of

If one of these is false, than the compound

1. Athifs cat is dead and Athifs cat is not dead.

Example: If p denotes I am at home. and q

Assuming p and r are true, while q false.

The Connective Or in English

Q: Can someone come up with an example?

Most restaurants definitely dont allow you to

To address this situation, exclusive-or is

1. The circuit is either is on or off.

Exclusive Or (XOR) - Example

Students who have taken discrete or computer

- Take both (T T = F).

Exclusive Or (XOR) - Example