20161214221246predicates and Quantifiers
20161214221246predicates and Quantifiers
20161214221246predicates and Quantifiers
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THE FOUNDATIONS:
LOGIC AND PROOFS
Summary
Valid Arguments and Rules of Inference
Proof Methods
Proof Strategies
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Rules of Inference
Section 1.6
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The Argument
We can express the premises (above the line)
and the conclusion (below the line) in
predicate logic as an argument:
Valid Arguments
We will show how to construct valid
arguments in two stages; first for
propositional logic and then for predicate
logic. The rules of inference are the essential
building block in the construction of valid
arguments.
1. Propositional Logic
Inference Rules
2. Predicate Logic
Inference rules for propositional logic plus additional
inference rules to handle variables and quantifiers.
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C
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Valid Arguments
Example 1: From the single proposition
Valid Arguments
Example 2:
With these hypotheses:
It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday.
We will go swimming only if it is sunny.
If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip.
If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset.
Using the inference rules, construct a valid argument for the conclusion:
We will be home by sunset.
Solution:
1. Choose propositional variables:
p : It is sunny this afternoon. r : We will go swimming. t : We will be home by sunset.
q : It is colder than yesterday. s : We will take a canoe trip.
2. Translation into propositional logic:
Valid Arguments
3. Construct the Valid Argument
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Example:
Example:
Example:
Valid Argument
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xG(x)
xG(x) T(x)
__________________
T(x)
Conclusion: Ahmad, who is in this class
understands the trigonometric functions.
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True False
False True
False False
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x [S(x) P(x)]
x [A(x) P(x)]
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Introduction to Proofs
Section 1.8
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Section Summary
Mathematical Proofs
Forms of Theorems
Direct Proofs
Indirect Proofs
Proof of the Contrapositive
Proof by Contradiction
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Definitions
A theorem is a statement that can be shown to be true using:
definitions
other theorems
axioms (statements which are given as true)
rules of inference
A lemma is a helping theorem or a result which is needed to prove
a theorem.
A corollary is a result which follows directly from a theorem.
Less important theorems are sometimes called propositions.
A conjecture is a statement that is being proposed to be true. Once
a proof of a conjecture is found, it becomes a theorem. It may turn
out to be false.
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Forms of Theorems
Many theorems assert that a property holds for all
elements in a domain, such as the integers, the real
numbers, or some of the discrete structures that we
will study in this class.
Often the universal quantifier (needed for a precise
statement of a theorem) is omitted by standard
mathematical convention.
For example, the statement:
If x > y, where x and y are positive real numbers, then x2 > y2
really means
For all positive real numbers x and y, if x > y, then x2 > y2 .
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Proving Theorems
Many theorems have the form:
[ Even though these examples seem silly, both trivial and vacuous
proofs are often used in mathematical induction, as we will see in
Chapter 5) ]
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where v = pu + qt
w = qu 0
Thus the sum is rational.
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Proof by Contradiction
A preview of Chapter 4.
Example: Use a proof by contradiction to give a proof that 2 is irrational.
Solution: Suppose 2 is rational. Then there exists integers a and b with
2 = a/b, where b 0 and a and b have no common factors (see
Chapter 4). Then
Proof by Contradiction
A preview of Chapter 4.
Example: Prove that there is no largest prime number.
Solution: Assume that there is a largest prime number.
Call it pn. Hence, we can list all the primes 2,3,.., pn.
Form
Proof that 1 = 2
Looking Ahead
If direct methods of proof do not work:
We may need a clever use of a proof by
contraposition.
Or a proof by contradiction.
In the next section, we will see strategies that
can be used when straightforward approaches do
not work.
In Chapter 5, we will see mathematical induction
and related techniques.
In Chapter 6, we will see combinatorial proofs
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Section 1.9
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Section Summary
Proof by Cases
Existence Proofs
Constructive
Nonconstructive
Disproof by Counterexample
Nonexistence Proofs
Uniqueness Proofs
Proof Strategies
Proving Universally Quantified Assertions
Open Problems
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Proof by Cases
To prove a conditional statement of the form:
Proof by Cases
Example: Let a @ b = max{a, b} = a if a b, otherwise a@
b = max{a, b} = b.
Show that for all real numbers a, b, c
(a @b) @ c = a @ (b @ c)
(This means the operation @ is associative.)
Proof: Let a, b, and c be arbitrary real numbers.
Then one of the following 6 cases must hold.
1. a b c
2. a c b
3. b a c
4. b c a
5. c a b
6. c b a
Continued on next slide
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Proof by Cases
Case 1: a b c
(a @ b) = a, a @ c = a, b @ c = b
Hence (a @ b) @ c = a = a @ (b @ c)
Therefore the equality holds for the first case.
We only cover the case where x is odd because the case where y is odd is
similar. The use phrase without loss of generality (WLOG) indicates this.
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Existence Proofs
Srinivasa Ramanujan
Proof of theorems of the form (1887-1920)
.
Constructive existence proof:
Find an explicit value of c, for which P(c) is true.
Then is true by Existential Generalization (EG).
Example: Show that there is a positive integer that can
be written as the sum of cubes of positive integers in
two different ways:
Proof: 1729 is such a number since
1729 = 103 + 93 = 123 + 13
Counterexamples
Recall .
To establish that is true (or is
false) find a c such that P(c) is true or P(c) is
false.
In this case c is called a counterexample to the
assertion .
Example: Every positive integer is the sum of
the squares of 3 integers. The integer 7 is a
counterexample. So the claim is false.
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Uniqueness Proofs
Some theorems asset the existence of a unique element with a
particular property, !x P(x). The two parts of a uniqueness proof
are
Existence: We show that an element x with the property exists.
Uniqueness: We show that if yx, then y does not have the property.
Example: Show that if a and b are real numbers and a 0, then
there is a unique real number r such that ar + b = 0.
Solution:
Existence: The real number r = b/a is a solution of ar + b = 0
because a(b/a) + b = b + b =0.
Uniqueness: Suppose that s is a real number such that as + b = 0.
Then ar + b = as + b, where r = b/a. Subtracting b from both
sides and dividing by a shows that r = s.
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Backward Reasoning
Example: Suppose that two people play a game taking turns removing, 1, 2, or 3
stones at a time from a pile that begins with 15 stones. The person who removes
the last stone wins the game. Show that the first player can win the game no
matter what the second player does.
Two Dominoes
Tilings
Example 2: Can we tile a checkerboard obtained
by removing one of the four corner squares of a
standard checkerboard?
Solution:
Our checkerboard has 64 1 = 63 squares.
Since each domino has two squares, a board with
a tiling must have an even number of squares.
The number 63 is not even.
We have a contradiction.
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Tilings
Example 3: Can we tile a board obtained by
removing both the upper left and the lower
right squares of a standard checkerboard?
Tilings
Solution:
There are 62 squares in this board.
To tile it we need 31 dominos.
Key fact: Each domino covers one black and one white
square.
Therefore the tiling covers 31 black squares and 31
white squares.
Our board has either 30 black squares and 32 white
squares or 32 black squares and 30 white squares.
Contradiction!
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An Open Problem
The 3x + 1 Conjecture: Let T be the transformation
that sends an even integer x to x/2 and an odd integer
x to 3x + 1. For all positive integers x, when we
repeatedly apply the transformation T, we will
eventually reach the integer 1.
For example, starting with x = 13:
T(13) = 313 + 1 = 40, T(40) = 40/2 = 20, T(20) = 20/2 = 10,
T(10) = 10/2 = 5, T(5) = 35 + 1 = 16,T(16) = 16/2 = 8,
T(8) = 8/2 = 4, T(4) = 4/2 = 2, T(2) = 2/2 = 1
The conjecture has been verified using computers up
to 5.6 1013 .
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