2 The Earth

Navigation
NAU 102
Lesson 2
The Earth
News Flash!
It isn’t flat
But, it isn’t a perfect sphere either.

The Earth
The Earth is an oblate spheroid.

A sphere flattened at the poles.
•Equatorial diameter: 6,888 nm
•Polar diameter: 6,865nm
(1 nm = 6,076.1 ft = 1.15 statute mile)
Considered a perfect sphere for navigation
purposes.
Where on Earth?
Locations can be identified using
coordinate systems.
Coordinate systems require reference

(starting) points.
The rotation of the Earth can be used.

Where on Earth?
The Earth rotates on an

axis.
That gives us 2 reference

points!
North & South Poles – the extreme ends of

the axis at the surface of the earth.
Reference Lines
Great Circle
A line on the
surface formed by
the intersection of
a plane passing
through the center
of the earth.
Reference Lines
Great Circle
•The largest circle that can be drawn

on the surface of a sphere.
•The shortest path between any 2

points on a sphere.
Reference Lines
Small Circle
A line on the
surface formed by
the intersection of
a plane which
does not pass
through the center
of the earth.
Reference Lines
Meridian
A great circle
passing through
the poles.
Reference Lines
Meridians
•Upper Branch – that half of a meridian
extending from the north pole to the south
pole, passing through a particular point on
the surface.
•Lower Branch – the other half of the
meridian, on the opposite side of the earth.
Reference Lines
Prime (or Greenwich)

Meridian – the upper
branch of the
meridian which
passes through the
Royal Observatory in
Greenwich, England.
Reference Lines
Equator
A great circle,
perpendicular to
the axis and
equidistant from
the poles.
Reference Lines
Parallels
Small circles,
parallel to the
equator. Also
called parallels
of latitude.
Reference Lines
Latitude (Lat) - The angular distance
from the equator to a parallel.
•Measured along a
meridian
•0° at the equator
•90° at the poles
•Labeled north (N)
or south (S)
Reference Lines
Longitude (Lon) - The angular distance from
the prime meridian to the meridian of a point.
•Measured along a
parallel
•Measured east (E) or
west (W)
•0° at prime meridian
•180° at the lower branch of Greenwich
Geographic Coordinates
Stated in Degrees (°)
360° in a circle
60 minutes (') in a degree
60 seconds (") in a minute

Position Conventions
•Latitude then longitude
•Latitude format:
•Degrees (2 digits), minutes (2) and seconds (2)
e.g. 08° 15' 30" N
Or,
•Degrees (2 digits), minutes (2) and tenths (1)
e.g. 08° 15.5' N
•Longitude format:
•Degrees (3 digits), minutes (2) and seconds (2)
e.g. 096° 24' 42" W
Or,
•Degrees (3 digits), minutes (2) and tenths (1)
e.g. 096° 24.7' W

Distances
How long is a degree of latitude?
(6865 nm * π) / 360° = 59.91 nm / ° Lat
59.91 = 0.9985 nm / ' Lat

60 '/°
For navigation purposes

1' Lat = 1 nm
Distances
How long is a degree of longitude?
It Varies!
At the equator:
(6888 nm * π) / 360°
= 60.1 nm / ° Lon
At the poles 1° = 0 nm
Great Circle vs. Rhumb Line
Great Circle
•the shortest line between 2 points
•direction constantly changes
•cannot steer a great circle route
Rhumb Line
•crosses all meridians at same angle
•greater distance than GC
Great Circle vs. Rhumb Line
Rhumb Line
Steering one
course
Vessel will
spiral to the
poles.
A loxodrome.
Directions
Direction – angular orientation between
two points.
Measured in degrees of arc from a
reference.
References:
•Geographic North = true direction (T)
•Magnetic North = magnetic direction (M)
•Ship’s heading = relative direction (R)
Directions
Definitions
•Course (C)– intended direction of vessel.
•Heading (Hdg.) – direction the vessel is pointed.
•Track (Tr) – intended path of travel
•Course over ground (COG) – actual path of
travel
•Course made good (CMG) – resultant direction
traveled between 2 points.
Direction – Which way?
Directions
Definitions (cont.)
Bearing - Direction of one object to another

Geodesy
The science of measuring the Earth and
positioning of points.
Measured mathematically based on
geometric models
The actual Earth is irregular (mountains,
valleys, etc.)
An ellipsoid is used to simplify the math.

Datums
Latitude and Longitude of locations are
computed by triangulation from known
points.
North American Datum, 1927 (NAD 27)
Coordinates computed from a point in
Kansas.
European Datum Tokyo Datum
Indian Datum
Datums
Datums
We have a Problem!
Different starting points
+
Different ellipsoids
=
Different computed latitude and
longitude
World Geodetic System
One system for the entire world.
Based on multiple points
One worldwide ellipsoid
Satellite technology for determining
position
Result – a standardized method of
computing position
WGS - 84
Datum Shift
Different datum = different computed
position
No problem when piloting

Big problem when using GPS!
GPS uses WGS - 84

GPS positions must be adjusted prior to
plotting on older charts.
Datum
Shift
Introduction to Navigation
Questions?

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Navigation

But, it isn’t a perfect sphere either.

The Earth is an oblate spheroid.

Coordinate systems require reference

The rotation of the Earth can be used.

The Earth rotates on an

That gives us 2 reference

North & South Poles – the extreme ends of

•The largest circle that can be drawn

•The shortest path between any 2

Prime (or Greenwich)

60 minutes (') in a degree

60 seconds (") in a minute

e.g. 096° 24.7' W

59.91 = 0.9985 nm / ' Lat

For navigation purposes

Bearing - Direction of one object to another

An ellipsoid is used to simplify the math.

No problem when piloting

GPS uses WGS - 84

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