CELL MODIFICATION

THAT LEAD TO CARRY

OUT SPECIALIZED
FUNCTION

Presented by:
Jet Daniel Andrei Arellano
Darwin Reigh Calub
Aeryl Dierson Magahis
WHAT IS CELL MODIFICATION?
• Cell specialization (or modification or differentiation) is actually a
process that occurs after cell division where the newly formed cells are
structurally modified so that they can perform their function efficiently
and effectively.
• Cell modification is features or structure of the cell that makes it different
from another type of cell and at the same time enables it to carry out
unusual functions.
WHAT IS CELL MODIFICATION?
• Cell modification are specialized or modifications re-acquired by the cell
after cell division
WHY CELL MODIFICATION OCCUR?

• Plant and animal cells are specialized to be able to carry out their
tasks efficiently

• They have particular adaptation to their structure to suit its function.

KINDS OF CELL MODIFICATION

• Apical Modifications (top)

• Basal Modification (bottom)
• Lateral Modification (sides)
APICAL MODIFICATION

Apical modification occurs in the apical surface. Under the APICAL

MODIFACTION are:
• Microvilli
• Cilia
• Stereocilia
• Flagella
STRUCTURE,
LOCATIONS
AND
FUNCTIONS
MICROVILLI
• Microvilli are microscopic cellular membrane protrusions that
increase the surface area for diffusion and minimize any increase in
volume, and are involved in a wide variety of functions, including
absorption, secretion, cellular adhesion, and mechanotransduction.

• Microvilli, in the most simplistic terms, are tiny little projections that
exist in, on, and around cells.
MICROVILLI
• The tissue has small fingerlike extensions called villi which are collections
of cells, and those cells have many microvilli to even further increase the
available surface area for the digestion process.

• Microvilli are covered in plasma membrane, which encloses cytoplasm and

microfilaments. Though these are cellular extensions, there are little or no
cellular organelles present in the microvilli.
MICROVILLI
• Thousands of microvilli form a structure called the brush border that
is found on the apical surface of some epithelial cells, such as the small
intestines

• Microvilli should not be confused with intestinal villi, which are made
of many cells. Each of these cells has many
MICROVILLI
• Microvilli are most often found in the small intestine, on the surface of
egg cells, as well as on white blood cells
• In the intestine, they work in conjunction with villi to absorb more
nutrients and more material because they expand the surface area of the
intestine.
MICROVILLI
• They also play a role in egg cells as they help in anchoring the sperm
to the egg, thus allowing for easier fertilization. In white blood cells,
the microvilli again act as an anchoring point

• Microvilli are extremely important because they increase the surface

area of the cell that they are found on.
MICROVILLI
• Microvilli function as the primary surface of nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal
tract. Because of this vital function, the microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes
that aid in the breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compounds that are more
easily absorbed. For example, enzymes that digest carbohydrates called glycosidases are
present at high concentrations on the surface of enterocyte microvilli. Thus, microvilli
not only increase the cellular surface area for absorption, they also increase the number of
digestive enzymes that can be present on the cell surface.
CILIA
• A cilium, or cilia (plural), are small hair-like protuberances on the
outside of eukaryotic cells.

• They are primarily responsible for locomotion, either of the cell itself
or of fluids on the cell surface. They are also involved in
mechanoreception.

• There is even a class of microorganisms named for these small

structures.
CILIA
• Ciliates are protozoans that possess cilia which they use for both
locomotion and feeding.

• Cilia can be grouped into two categories. First, there are motile cilia,
which are always moving in a single direction. They help the cell move
around in the cellular fluids and help move fluids past the cell. Motile
cilia are found together on cells and coordinate their movements to be
most effective, making up for their small size.
CILIA
• The second type of cilia is non-motile cilia, and these are responsible for
sensing the surrounding environment. They are also called primary cilia.
Whereas motile cilia are found in groups on cells, each cell usually has
just one non-motile cilium.

• A cilium is made up of microtubules coated in plasma membrane

CILIA
• The microtubules are small hollow rods made of the protein tubulin. Each
cilium contains nine pairs of microtubules forming the outside of a ring,
and two central microtubules.

• Cilia attach to the cell at a basal body. The basal body is made up of
microtubules arranged as nine triplets. The triplets are formed as the
doublets from the cilia are joined by an additional microtubule from the
cell. The two central microtubules end before entering the basal body.
CILIA
• Cilia are very small structures – measuring approximately 0.25 μm in
diameter and up to 20 μm in length. Where present they are found in
large numbers on the cell surface. The cilia act like oars, beating back and
forth to create movement.

• Cilia play an important role in locomotion. This can include movement of

the cell itself, or of other substances and objects past the cell
CILIA
• In some organisms known as ciliates, cilia are responsible for
movement of the organism as a whole. For example, in
the unicellular protist Paramecium, cilia cover the surface of the
organism and are responsible for movement as well as feeding. In
addition to covering the outside of the organism, cilia also line the oral
groove, moving food into the organism’s “mouth”.
CILIA
• Cilia can help to remove contaminants from organs or tissue by
helping to move fluids over the cell. The lining of the nasopharynx and
the trachea are covered in cilia. These ciliated epithelial cells remove
mucus, bacteria, and other debris from the lungs.
STEREOCILIA
• Stereocilia are non-motile apical modifications of the cell, which are
distinct from cilia and microvilli, but closely related to the latter.

• Long microvilli that function in increasing absorption

• Found in sensory cells in ear and male reproductive tract

• Does not have the true characteristic of true cilia or flagella

STREOCILIA
• Stereocilia are the mechanosensing organelles of hair cells, which respond to fluid
motion in numerous types of animals for various functions, including hearing and
balance. They are about 10–50 micrometers in length and share some similar features
of microvilli. The hair cells turn the fluid pressure and other mechanical stimuli into
electric stimuli via the many microvilli that make up stereocilia rods.]Stereocilia exist
in the auditory and vestibular systems.
STEREOCILIA
• The stereocilia are located in the otolithic organs and the semicircular
canals. Hair cells in the vestibular system are slightly different from
those in the auditory system, in that vestibular hair cells have one
tallest cilium, termed the kinocilium
STEREOCILIA
• The stereocilia of the epididymis are long cytoplasmic projections that have an actin
filament backbone. These filaments have been visualized at high resolution using
fluorescent phalloidin that binds to actin filaments. The stereocilia in the epididymis
are non-motile. These membrane extensions increase the surface area of the cell,
allowing for greater absorption and secretion. It has been shown that epithelial
sodium channel that allows the flow of Na+ ions into the cell is localized on
stereocilia
FLAGELLA
• A flagellum is a microscopic hair-like organelle used by cells and
microorganisms for movement

• The word flagellum in Latin means whip, just like the whipping motion
flagella (plural) often use for locomotion.

• Specialized flagella in some organisms are also used as sensory

organelles that can detect changes in temperature and pH.
FLAGELLA
• A flagellum can be comprised of different structures depending on
the organism, especially when flagellum from eukaryotes and bacteria
are compared. Since eukaryotes are usually complex organisms, the
attached flagellum is more complex as well. The flagellum is made up
of microtubules composed from a protein called tubulin.
FLAGELLA
• Eukaryotes have true flagellum, almost half the human population
produces cells with them in the form of sperm

• This is the only cell in the human body with flagellum, and for good
reason. In order to move through the vaginal tract to meet the egg,
sperm must be able to swim, or move, very long distances (in
comparison of cell to body size). Without the flagellum, there would
be very little chance of fertilization or population stability.
FLAGELLA
• The flagellar structure consists of three different parts: rings
embedded in the basal body, a hook near the surface of the organism
to keep it in place, and the flagellar protein filaments. Every flagellum
has these three things in common, regardless of organism. However,
there are four distinct types of bacterial flagellum based on location:
FLAGELLA
• A. Monotrichous: A single flagellum at one end of the organism or the
other.

• B. Lophotrichous: Several flagellum on one end of the organism or the

other.

• C. Amphitrichous: A single flagellum on both ends of the organism.

• D. Peritrichous: Several flagellum attached all over the organism.

FLAGELLA
• Monotrichous, amphitrichous, and lophotrichous flagellum are
considered polar flagellum because the flagellum is strictly located on
the ends of the organism. These flagella can rotate both clockwise and
counterclockwise. A clockwise movement propels the organism (or
cell) forward, while a counterclockwise movement pulls the organism
backwards.
FLAGELLA
• Peritrichous flagella are not considered polar because they are located all
over the organism. When these flagella rotate in a counterclockwise
movement, they form a bundle that propels the organism in one
direction. If a few of the flagellum break away and begin rotating
clockwise, the organism then begins a tumbling motion. During this
time, the organism cannot move in any real direction
FLAGELLUM
• If any flagellum stops rotating—regardless of polarity—the organism
will change direction. This is caused by Brownian motion (constant
movement of liquid particles) and fluid currents catching up with the
organism and spinning it around. Some organisms that cannot change
direction on their own rely on Brownian motion and fluid currents to
do it for them
FLAGELLA
• Flagella are filamentous protein structures found in bacteria, archaea, and
eukaryotes, though they are most commonly found in bacteria.

• They are typically used to propel a cell through liquid (i.e. bacteria and
sperm). Flagella have many other specialized functions. Some eukaryotic
cells use flagellum to increase reproduction rates.
FLAGELLA
• Other eukaryotic and bacterial flagella are used to sense changes in the
environment, such as temperature or pH disturbances

• Flagella may also be used as a secretory organelle according to the recent

work of the green alga Chlamydomonas Reinhardtii.

• Stereocilia (along with the entirety of the hair cell) in mammals can be
damaged or destroyed by excessive loud noises, disease, and toxins and
are not regenerable
FLAGELLA
• Abnormal structure/organization of a bundle of stereocilia can also
cause deafness and in turn create balance problems for an individual.
In other vertebrates, if the hair cell is harmed, supporting cells will
divide and replace the damaged hair cells.
BASAL MODIFICATION
• Basal Infoldings
• Hemidesmosome
BASAL INFOLDINGS
• Often found in epithelium that are known to transport fluid (kidney)

• Will often see mitochondria in the basal infoldings; suggests that

active transport is occurring

• Very important in epithelial polarization and stability

• Support the epithelium and also functions as a passive molecular sieve

or ultra filter
BASAL INFOLDINGS
• Infoldings of the basolateral region of the plasma membrane are
commonly found in cells engaged in active transport of fluids and ions.
These infoldings increase the surface area available for transport

• The infoldings of the plasma membrane which surround individual

mitochondria; this portion of the membrane is involved in energy-
intensive ion exchange, part of the kidney filtration process.
BASAL INFOLDINGS
• If basal lamina is destroyed (trauma, infections, burns), the epithelium
will not be repaired but substituted with a scar (connective tissue)
HEMIDESMOSOME
• Hemidesmosomes are very small stud-like structures found
in keratinocytes of the epidermis of skin that attach to
the extracellular matrix.

• Hemidesmosomes are found in epithelial cells connecting the basal

epithelial cells to the lamina lucida, which is part of the basal lamina.
HEMIDESMOSOME
• Protein filaments interlock with filaments of the adjacent cell which
forms a dense intermediate line between the cells

• Found beneath the zonula adherens

• Cytoplasmic face is connected to microfilaments extending into the

cytoplasm
LATERAL MODIFICATION
• Tight Junctions (Zonula Occludens)
• Adhering Junctions (Zonula Adherens)
• Gap Junctions
• Desmosome (Macula Adherens)
TIGHT JUNCTIONS
• Tight junctions are areas where the membranes of two adjacent cells
join together to form a barrier.

• The cell membranes are connected by strands of transmembrane

proteins such as claudins and occludins.

• Tight junctions bind cells together, prevent molecules from passing in

between the cells, and also help to maintain the polarity of cells
TIGHT JUNCTIONS
• They are only found in vertebrates, animals with a backbone
and skeleton; invertebrates have septate junctions instead.

• Tight junctions have several different functions. Their most important

functions are to help cells form a barrier that prevents molecules from
getting through, and to stop proteins in the cell membrane from
moving around
TIGHT JUNCTIONS
• Tight junctions are often found at epithelial cells, which are cells that
line the surface of the body and line body cavities. Not only do
epithelial cells separate the body from the surrounding environment,
they also separate surfaces within the body. Therefore, it is very
important that the permeability of molecules through layers of
epithelial cells is tightly controlled.
TIGHT JUNCTIONS
• If molecules are blocked by tight junctions and physically unable to pass
through the space in between cells, they must enter through other
methods that involve entering the cells themselves. They could pass
through special proteins in the cell membrane, or be engulfed by the cell
through endocytosis. Using these methods, the cell has greater control
over what materials it takes in and allows to pass through.
TIGHT JUNCTIONS
• Another function of tight junctions is simply to hold cells together.
The branching protein strands of tight junctions link adjacent cells
together tightly so that they form a sheet. These strands are anchored
to microfilaments, part of the cell’s cytoskeleton that is made up of
long strands of actin proteins.
TIGHT JUNCTIONS
• Microfilaments are located inside the cell, so the combination of
microfilaments and sealing strands anchors the cells together from the
inside and the outside.
TIGHT JUNCTIONS
• Tight junctions are a branching network of protein strands on the
surface of a cell that link with each other throughout the surface of
the membrane.

• The strands are formed by transmembrane proteins on the surfaces of

the cell membranes that are adjacent to each other.
TIGHT JUNCTIONS
• There are around 40 different proteins at tight junctions. These
proteins can be grouped into four main types.

• Transmembrane proteins are wedged in the middle of the cell

membrane and are responsible for adhesion and permeability.
Scaffolding proteins organize transmembrane proteins.
TIGHT JUNCTIONS
• Signaling proteins are responsible for forming the tight junction and
regulating the barrier. Regulation proteins regulate what proteins are
brought to the cell membrane in vesicles.

• Claudins and occludins are the two main types of proteins present at
tight junctions, and they are both transmembrane proteins.
TIGHT JUNCTIONS
• Claudins are important in forming tight junctions, while occludins
play more of a role in keeping the tight junction stable and
maintaining the barrier between cells that keeps unwanted molecules
out.
ADHERENS JUNCTION
• The Adherens junction and Tight junction provide important adhesive
contacts between neighboring epithelial cells.

• Although these junctions comprise different proteins, there are

similarities in the roles of specialized transmembrane proteins in
forming extracellular adhesive contacts between cells, and
intracellular links to the actin cytoskeleton and signaling pathways
including the regulation of gene transcription.
ADHERENS JUNCTION
• Adherens junctions are protein complexes that occur at cell–cell
junctions in epithelial and endothelial tissues usually more basal
than tight junctions

• They can appear as bands encircling the cell (zonula adherens) or as

spots of attachment to the extracellular matrix (adhesion plaques).
Adherens junctions uniquely disassemble in uterine epithelial cells to
allow the blastocyst to penetrate between epithelial cells.
GAP JUNCTIONS
• Gap junctions are a type of cell junction in which adjacent cells are
connected through protein channels.

• These channels connect the cytoplasm of each cell and allow

molecules, ions, and electrical signals to pass between them. Gap
junctions are found in between the vast majority of cells within the
body because they are found between all cells that are directly
touching other cells.
GAP JUNCTIONS
• Exceptions include cells that move around and do not usually come
into close contact with other cells, such as sperm cells and
red blood cells. Gap junctions are only found in animal
cells; plant cells are connected by channels called plasmodesmata
instead.
GAP JUNCTIONS
• The main function of gap junctions is to connect cells together so that
molecules may pass from one cell to the other. This allows for cell-to-
cell communication, and makes it so that molecules can directly enter
neighboring cells without having to go through the extracellular
fluid surrounding the cells
GAP JUNCTIONS
• Gap junctions are especially important during embryonic
development, a time when neighboring cells must communicate with
each other in order for them to develop in the right place at the right
time. If gap junctions are blocked, embryos cannot develop normally.
GAP JUNCTIONS
• Gap junctions make cells chemically or electrically coupled. This means
that the cells are linked together and can transfer molecules to each
other for use in reactions.

• Electrical coupling occurs in the heart, where cells receive the signal to
contract the heart muscle at the same time through gap junctions.
GAP JUNCTIONS
• It also occurs in neurons, which can be connected to each other by
electrical synapses in addition to the well-known chemical synapses that
neurotransmitters are released from.

• When a cell starts to die from disease or injury, it sends out signals
through its gap junctions. These signals can cause nearby cells to die even
if they are not diseased or injured. This is called the “bystander effect”,
since the nearby cells are innocent bystanders that become victims.
GAP JUNCTIONS
• In vertebrate cells, gap junctions are made up of connexin proteins.
(The cells of invertebrates have gap junctions that are composed of
innexin proteins, which are not related to connexin proteins but
perform a similar function.)

• Groups of six connexins form a connexon, and two connexons are put
together to form a channel that molecules can pass through.
GAP JUNCTIONS
• Other channels in gap junctions are made up of pannexin proteins.
Relatively less is known about pannexins; they were originally
thought only to form channels within a cell, not between cells.

• Hundreds of channels are found together at the site of a gap junction

in what is known as a gap junction plaque. A plaque is a mass of
proteins.
DESMOSOMES
• Desmosomes are a type of anchoring junction in animal tissues that
connect adjacent cells.

• Anchoring junctions are button-like spots found all around cells that
bind adjacent cells together.
DESMOSOMES
• Desmosomes have intermediate filaments in the cells underneath that
help anchor the junction, while the other type of anchoring junction, an
adherens junction, is anchored by microfilaments.

• Intermediate filaments and microfilaments are two different components

of a cell’s cytoskeleton.
DESMOSOMES
• The function of desmosomes is to adhere cells together.

• They are found in high numbers in tissues that are subject to a lot of
mechanical forces.

• For example, many are found in the epidermis, which is the outer layer
of skin, and the myocardium, which is muscle tissue in the heart.
DESMOSOMES
• They are also found in between squamous epithelial cells, which form
the lining of body parts like the heart, blood vessels, air sacs of the
lungs, and esophagus.

• There are three components in desmosomal adhesion: the

intermediate filaments inside the cell, the bond between intermediate
filaments and desmosomal adhesion molecules, and the bond provided
by the desmosomal adhesion molecules.
DESMOSOMES
• The intermediate filaments and their link to the desmosomal adhesion
molecules are both located inside the cell, while the bonds of the
desmosomal adhesion molecules themselves are on the outside of the
cell

• Specifically, desmoglein and desmocollin are the two proteins that

bind cells at desmosomes.
DESMOSOMES
• They are transmembrane proteins and are both members of the
cadherin family of proteins.

• All three components of desmosomal adhesion are necessary for

desmosomes to properly function in binding adjacent cells together,
so if one of the components fails, the desmosomes cannot bind cells
properly.
SPECIALIZED
MODIFICATION
• Nerve cells, or neurons are very specialized cells of the nervous system. Since an
electrical signal needs to travel relatively long distances to parts of the body, nerve cells
have specialized structures called dendrites, which receive an electrical signal from
another neuron, and axons, which transmit an electrical signal to another person

• Muscle cells are made up primarily of a pair of special proteins called actin and myosin
which allows the muscle to contract
SPECIALIZED
MODIFICATION
• Red blood cells are anucleate, and thus are produced from bone marrow, but
contain large amounts of hemoglobin to transport oxygen throughout the
body.

• Sperm cells are haploid and contain flagellum in order to swim through the
vagina.
SPECIALIZED MODIFICATION

• Plant cells have large amounts of the organelle chloroplast, which allows the
cell to undergo photosynthesis. Plant cells are also covered by a cell wall.