Principles of Geotechnical Engineering

Eighth Edition

Chapter 6
Soil Compaction

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Student Objectives and Outline

 6.2 – Learn about compaction

 6.3 – Learn about the standard Proctor test to obtain the
maximum dry unit weight
 6.4 – Understand what factors affect the degree of
compaction achieved by a soil
 6.5 – Learn about the modified Proctor test and why it
represents field conditions better than the standard test

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Student Objectives and Outline (cont.)

 6.6 – Learn about some correlations involving compaction

 6.7 – Understand the structure of compacted clay soil
 6.8 – Know how compaction affects cohesive soil
properties
 6.9 – Learn about compaction in the field
 6.10 – Understand specifications for field compaction and
the ways that contractors try to meet them economically

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Student Objectives and Outline (cont.)

 6.11 – Learn about the sand cone, rubber balloon, and

nuclear methods of determining unit weight of compaction
 6.12 – Learn about compaction of organic materials
 6.13 – Understand that some soils have better
compaction characteristics than others
 6.14 – Learn about some special methods of compaction

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

6.2 Compaction-General Principles

 Compaction is the densification of soil by removal of air

 Compaction:
 Increases the strength of soils
 Decreases the amount of settlement of structures
 Increases the stability of the slopes of embankments
 Vibration and rollers may be used to compact soil

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Compaction-General Principles (cont.)

 Compaction may be measured in terms of dry unit weight

 Water acts as a softening agent during compaction
 The dry unit weight at 𝑤 = 𝑤1 is:
𝛾𝑑 𝑤=𝑤1 = 𝛾𝑑 𝑤=0 + Δ𝛾𝑑
 The dry unit weight increases initially as water is added

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Compaction-General Principles (cont.)

 After a certain point

(𝑤 = 𝑤2 ), the dry unit
weight decreases as the
moisture content increases
 The moisture content at
maximum dry weight is the
optimum moisture content

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

6.3 Standard Proctor Test

 In the Proctor test, soil is

mixed with varying
amounts of water
 The soil is then compacted
within a mold by 25 blows
with a standard sized
hammer

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Standard Proctor Test (cont.)

 The dry unit weight may be

calculated as follows:
𝛾
𝛾𝑑 =
𝑤 %
1+
100
 The dry unit weight may
then be plotted against the
moisture content

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Standard Proctor Test (cont.)

 The theoretical maximum dry unit weight is given by:

𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑧𝑎𝑣 =
1
𝑤+
𝐺𝑠
 𝛾𝑧𝑎𝑣 is the zero-air-void unit weight (which should be the
maximum dry unit weight), and 𝐺𝑠 is the specific gravity
of soil solids

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

6.4 Factors Affecting Compaction

 The soil type affects the

maximum dry unit weight
and optimum moisture
content
 Some soils, like sand,
exhibit compaction curves
other than a single-peaked
bell shape

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Factors Affecting Compaction (cont.)

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Factors Affecting Compaction (cont.)

 As the compaction effort

increases, the maximum
dry unit weight increases
 Additionally, the optimum
moisture content is
decreased
 Degree of compaction is
not directly proportional to
compaction effort

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

6.5 Modified Proctor Test

 The modified Proctor test is designed to better represent

field conditions, and uses a heavier hammer with a larger
drop, but the same mold
 This increases the compaction effort, which in turn
increases the measured maximum dry unit weight

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

6.6 Empirical Relationships

 Gurtug and Sridharan proposed the following correlations

based on the plastic limit of cohesive soils:
𝑤𝑜𝑝𝑡 % = 1.95 − 0.38 log 𝐸 𝑃𝐿
𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚3 = 22.68𝑒 −0.0183𝑤𝑜𝑝𝑡 (%)
 𝑃𝐿 is the plastic limit (in %), and 𝐸 is the compaction
energy (2700 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 for the modified Proctor test)
 Similar relationships exist in terms of the plasticity index
and the liquid limit

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

6.7 Structure of Compacted Clay Soil

 At a given moisture
content, increased
compactive effort gives the
particles a more parallel
orientation

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

6.8 Effect of Compaction on

Cohesive Soil Properties

 Compaction changes the

structure of cohesive soils
 Hydraulic conductivity
measures how easily water
flows through the soil
 It is higher on the dry side
of the optimum moisture
content, due to large pores

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Effect of Compaction on Cohesive Soil

Properties (cont.)

 At low pressures, soil is

more compressible when
compacted on the wet side
of the optimum moisture
 At higher pressures, the
same soil will be more
compressible if compacted
on the dry side instead

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Effect of Compaction on Cohesive Soil

Properties (cont.)

 Some clays expand with

addition of moisture and
shrink when drying
 This can cause stresses on
the foundations of
structures

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

6.9 Field Compaction

 Most field compaction is done with rollers, including:

 Smooth-wheel rollers
 Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers
 Sheepsfoot rollers
 Vibratory rollers
 Handheld vibrating plates may be used for compaction
over a small area

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Smooth-wheeled rollers

 Smooth-wheeled rollers are

useful for proof rolling
subgrades and finishing
operation of fills with sandy
and clayey soils
 Contact pressures can be
up to 310-380 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers

 Pneumatic rollers are also

useful for compacting
sandy and clayey soils
 Contact pressures range
from 600-700 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Sheepsfoot rollers

 Sheepsfoot rollers have

small projections, which
make them more effective
at compacting clayey soils
 Contact pressures range
from 1400-7000 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Vibratory rollers

 Vibratory rollers help

compact granular soils
 Vibrators may be attached
to other types of rollers
 Weights are rotated off-
center to produce vibration

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Field Compaction

 Soil is spread in layers

 Water is sprayed on each
layer, which is then
compacted by a roller
 The amount of moisture
and the number of roller
passes affects the final dry
unit weight

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

6.10 Specifications for Field Compaction

 The relative compaction, 𝑅, is defined as:

𝛾𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑅 % = × 100
𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑙𝑎𝑏
 In terms of the relative density, 𝐷𝑟 :
𝑅0
𝑅=
1 − 𝐷𝑟 1 − 𝑅0
 Where:
𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑅0 =
𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Specifications for Field Compaction (cont.)

 In order to achieve the

desired dry unit weight, the
moisture content must fall
between 𝑤1 and 𝑤2
 There is a moisture
content, 𝑤3 , that will allow
the desired dry unit weight
with minimum effort

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

6.11 Determination of Field Unit Weight of

Compaction

 The field unit weight of compaction may be measured by:

 The sand cone method
 The rubber balloon method
 The nuclear method

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

The Sand Cone Method

 A small hole is excavated

in the compacted area
 The hole is filled with sand
using the jar to determine
the volume of the hole
 The dry unit weight then
calculated

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

The Rubber Balloon Method

 This procedure is similar to

the sand cone method
 However, the volume is
measured using a rubber
balloon filled with water
from a calibrated vessel

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

The Nuclear Method

 Nuclear density meters use

radioactive isotope sources
 Dense soil absorbs more
gamma radiation than
loose soil
 The meters operate either
in drilled holes or from the
soil surface

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

6.12 Compaction of Organic Soil and

Waste Materials

 The presence of organic

materials in a soil reduces
its strength
 The maximum dry unit
weight of compaction
decreases with increasing
organic content

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Compaction of Organic Soil and

Waste Materials (cont.)

 The optimum moisture

content increases with an
increase in organic content
 Soils with more than about
10% organic material are
undesirable for compaction

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

6.13 Evaluation of Soils as

Compaction Material

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

6.14 Special Compaction Techniques

 Special compaction techniques are used for deep

compaction of in-place soils
 These include:
 Vibroflotation
 Dynamic compaction
 Blasting

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Vibroflotation

 The Vibroflot unit contains

an eccentric weight and
vibrates horizontally
 It has openings at the top
and bottom for water jets
 The unit compacts a
cylinder of about 2m radius
each time it is lowered

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Dynamic Compaction

 In dynamic compaction, a
heavy weight (80 to 360
kN) is dropped repeatedly
on the soil from a height of
7.5 to 30.5 m

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Blasting

 Blasting involves detonating explosive charges at a depth

below the surface in saturated soil
 Three to five detonations are usually necessary
 Compaction over an area up to 18 m may be achieved
 The charges are usually placed at a depth of two-thirds
the thickness of the soil layer to be compacted

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Eighth Edition Das/Sobhan

Summary

 The Proctor test is used to determine the maximum dry

unit weight of compaction and optimum moisture content
 The energy of compaction of the test affects these values
 Empirical relationships exist to estimate the maximum dry
unit weight and optimum moisture content of a soil
 Smooth-wheel, sheepsfoot, and vibratory rollers are
generally used for field compaction, while vibroflotation,
dynamic compaction, and blasting are special techniques

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