Anxiety, Obsessive-Compulsive, and Related Disorders: Abnormal Psychology - Ronald J. Comer - Ninth Edition

Anxiety, Obsessive-Compulsive, and
Related Disorders
Copyright © 2015 by Worth Publishers. All rights reserved

Chapter 5
Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

Anxiety
• What distinguishes fear from anxiety?

– ________ is a state of immediate alarm in response
to a serious, known threat to one's well-being
– ________ is a state of alarm in response to a vague
sense of being in danger
– Both have the same physiological features – increase

in respiration, perspiration, muscle tension, etc.

Anxiety Disorders
• Most common mental disorders in the U.S.

– In any given year, 18% of the adult population in the
U.S. experiences one of the six DSM-5 anxiety
disorders
• Close to 29% develop one of the disorders at some point in
their lives

• Only one-fifth of these individuals seek treatment
• Most individuals with one anxiety disorder also
suffer from a second disorder
– In addition, many individuals with an anxiety disorder
also experience depression

Anxiety Disorders
• Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

• Phobias
• Panic disorder
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
•

Acute stress disorder
• Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
• Excessive anxiety under most circumstances and

worry
• Symptoms: restlessness, fatigue; difficulty
concentrating, muscle tension, and/or sleep
problems

– Symptoms must last at least six months
• The disorder is common in Western society
• Usually first appears in childhood or adolescence
• Around one-quarter of those with GAD are currently
in treatment

GAD: The Sociocultural Perspective
• According to this theory, GAD is most likely to
develop in people faced with social conditions that
truly are dangerous
– Research supports this theory (example: Three Mile Island
in 1979, Hurricane Katrina in 2005, Haiti earthquake in
2010)
• One of the most powerful forms of societal stress is

poverty
– Why? Run-down communities, higher crime rates, fewer
educational and job opportunities, and greater risk for
health problems
– As would be predicted by the model, there are higher rates
of GAD in lower SES groups

GAD: The Psychodynamic Perspective
• Freud believed that all children experience

anxiety
– Realistic anxiety when they face actual danger
– Neurotic anxiety when they are prevented from
expressing id impulses
– Moral anxiety when they are punished for expressing

id impulses
• Some children experience particularly high
levels of anxiety, or their defense mechanisms
are particularly inadequate, and they may
develop GAD

GAD: The Psychodynamic Perspective
• Psychodynamic therapists use the same general

techniques to treat all psychological problems:
– Free association
– Therapist interpretations of transference, resistance,
and dreams

– Specific treatments for GAD
• Freudians focus less on fear and more on control of id
• Object-relations therapists attempt to help patients identify
and settle early relationship problems

GAD: The Humanistic Perspective
• Theorists propose that GAD, like other

psychological disorders, arises when people
stop looking at themselves honestly and
acceptingly
• This view is best illustrated by Carl Rogers's

explanation:
– Lack of “unconditional positive regard” in childhood
leads to “conditions of worth” (harsh self-standards)
– These threatening self-judgments break through and
cause anxiety, setting the stage for GAD to develop

GAD: The Humanistic Perspective
• Practitioners using this “client-centered”

approach try to show unconditional positive
regard for their clients and to empathize with
them
– Despite optimistic case reports, controlled studies

have failed to offer strong support
– In addition, only limited support has been found for
Rogers's explanation of GAD and other forms of
abnormal behavior

GAD: The Cognitive Perspective
• Initially, theorists suggested that GAD is caused

by ___________ assumptions
– Albert Ellis identified basic irrational assumptions:
• It is a dire necessity for an adult human being to be loved or
approved of by virtually every significant person in his
community

• It is awful and catastrophic when things are not the way one
would very much like them to be
– When these assumptions are applied to everyday life
and to more and more events, GAD may develop

GAD: The Cognitive Perspective
• New wave cognitive explanations

– In recent years, several new explanations have emerged:
• _________theory
– Developed by Wells; suggests that the most problematic
assumptions in GAD are the individual's worry about worrying
(meta-worry)
• ___________________ theory

– Certain individuals consider it unacceptable that negative events
may occur, even if the possibility is very small; they worry in an
effort to find “correct” solutions
• ______________ theory
– Developed by Borkovec; holds that worrying serves a “positive”
function for those with GAD by reducing unusually high levels of
bodily arousal

GAD: Cognitive Therapies
• Cognitive therapies
– Changing maladaptive assumptions
• Ellis's rational-emotive therapy (RET)
– Point out irrational assumptions
– Suggest more appropriate assumptions
– Assign related homework

– Studies suggest at least modest relief from treatment

GAD: Cognitive Therapies
• Breaking down worrying
– Therapists begin by educating clients about the role of
worrying in GAD and have them observe their bodily
arousal and cognitive responses across life situations
– In turn, clients become increasingly skilled at identifying
their worrying and their misguided attempts to control their
lives by worrying
– With continued practice, clients are expected to see the

world as less threatening, to adopt more constructive ways
of coping, and to worry less
– Research has begun to indicate that a concentrated focus
on worrying is a helpful addition to traditional cognitive
therapy
– This approach is similar to mindfulness-based cognitive
therapy

GAD: The Biological Perspective
• Biological theorists believe that GAD is caused

chiefly by biological factors
– Supported by family pedigree studies
• Biological relatives more likely to have GAD (~15%) than
general population (~6%)
• The closer the relative, the greater the likelihood

– There is, however, a competing explanation of shared
environment

• GABA inactivity
– 1950s – Benzodiazepines (Valium, Xanax) found to
reduce anxiety
– Why?
• Neurons have specific receptors (like a lock and key)
• Benzodiazepine receptors ordinarily receive gamma-

aminobutyric acid (GABA, a common neurotransmitter in the
brain)
– GABA carries inhibitory messages; when received, it causes a
neuron to stop firing

• In normal fear reactions:

– Key neurons fire more rapidly, creating a general
state of excitability experienced as fear or anxiety
– A feedback system is triggered – brain and body
activities work to reduce excitability
• Some neurons release GABA to inhibit neuron firing, thereby

reducing experience of fear or anxiety
– Malfunctions in the feedback system are believed to
cause GAD
• Possible reasons: Too few receptors, ineffective receptors

• Promising (but problematic) explanation

– Recent research has complicated the picture:
• Other neurotransmitters also bind to GABA receptors
– Issue of causal relationships
• Do physiological events CAUSE anxiety? How can we know?
What are alternative explanations?

• Biological treatments
– Antianxiety drug therapy
• Early 1950s: Barbiturates (sedative-hypnotics)
• Late 1950s: Benzodiazepines
– Provide temporary, modest relief
– Rebound anxiety with withdrawal and cessation of use

– Physical dependence is possible
– Produce undesirable effects (drowsiness, etc.)
– Mix badly with certain other drugs (especially alcohol)
• More recently: Antidepressant and antipsychotic medications

– Relaxation training
• Non-chemical biological technique
• Theory: Physical relaxation will lead to psychological
relaxation
• Research indicates that relaxation training is more effective

than placebo or no treatment
• Best when used in combination with cognitive therapy or
biofeedback

– Biofeedback
• Therapist uses electrical signals from the body to train people
to control physiological processes
• Electromyograph (EMG) is the most widely used; provides
feedback about muscle tension

• Found to have a modest effect but has its greatest impact
when used as an adjunct to other methods for treatment of
certain medical problems (headache, back pain, etc.)

Phobias
• From the Greek word for “fear”

• Persistent and unreasonable fears of particular
objects, activities, or situations
• People with a phobia often avoid the object or
thoughts about it

Phobias
• Fear is a normal and common experience

– How do common fears differ from phobias?
• More intense and persistent fear
• Greater desire to avoid the feared object or situation
• Distress that interferes with functioning

Phobias
• Most phobias technically are categorized as

“specific”
– Also two broader kinds:
• Social anxiety disorder
• Agoraphobia

Specific Phobias
• Persistent fears of specific objects or situations

• When exposed to the object or situation,
sufferers experience immediate fear
• Most common: Phobias of specific animals or
insects, heights, enclosed spaces,

thunderstorms, and blood

The Fear Business
• Haunted houses are part of the multi-million

dollar business of Halloween
• Industry is growing rapidly and there is an
increasing need for employees
• Might people who enjoy producing fear in others

be grappling with their own anxiety issues?
Which model(s) might support this view of such
individuals?

Specific Phobias
• Each year close to 9% of all people in the U.S.

have symptoms of specific phobia
• Many suffer from more than one phobia at a time
• Women outnumber men at least 2:1
• Prevalence differs across racial and ethnic

minority groups; the reason is unclear
• Vast majority of people with a specific phobia do
NOT seek treatment

What Causes Specific Phobias?
• Each model offers explanations, but evidence

tends to support the behavioral explanations:
– Phobias develop through conditioning

Classical Conditioning of Phobia
UCS UCR
Entrapment Fear
Running UCS UCR

+

water Entrapment Fear
CS CR
Running water Fear

• Other behavioral explanations

– Phobias develop through modeling
• Observation and imitation
– Phobias are maintained through avoidance
– Phobias may develop into GAD when a person

acquires a large number of them
• Process of stimulus generalization: Responses to one
stimulus are also elicited by similar stimuli

• A behavioral-evolutionary explanation
– Some specific phobias are much more common than
others
– Theorists argue that there is a species-specific
biological predisposition to develop certain fears
– Called “preparedness” because human beings are

theoretically more “prepared” to acquire some
phobias than others
– Model explains why some phobias (snakes, spiders)
are more common than others (meat, houses)
• Researchers do not know if these predispositions are due to
evolutionary or environmental factors

How Are Specific Phobias Treated?
• Systematic desensitization
– Technique developed by Joseph Wolpe
• Teach relaxation skills
• Create fear hierarchy
• Pair relaxation with the feared objects or situations
– Since relaxation is incompatible with fear, the relaxation

response is thought to substitute for the fear response
– Several types:
• In vivo desensitization (live)
• Covert desensitization (imaginal)

How Are Specific Phobias Treated?
• Other behavioral treatments:

– Flooding
• Forced non-gradual exposure
– Modeling
• Therapist confronts the feared object while the fearful person
observes

• Clinical research supports each of these
treatments
– The key to success is ACTUAL contact with the
feared object or situation
• A growing number of therapists are using virtual reality as a
useful exposure tool

Agoraphobia
• Fear of being in public places or situations

where escape might be difficult or help
unavailable, should they experience panic or
become incapacitated
• Pervasive and complex

• Typically develops in 20s or 30s

Explanations for Agoraphobia
• Often explained in ways similar to specific

phobias
• Many people with agoraphobia experience
extreme and sudden explosions of fear, called
panic attacks

• Such individuals may receive two diagnoses—
agoraphobia and panic disorder

Treatment for Agoraphobia
• Behaviorists favor a variety of exposure

approaches for agoraphobia
• Exposure therapy
• Support group
• Home-based self-help

Social Anxiety Disorder
• Marked, disproportionate, and persistent fears

about one or more social situations
– May be narrow – talking, performing, eating, or writing
in public
– May be broad – general fear of functioning poorly in

front of others
– In both forms, people rate themselves as performing
less competently than they actually do

What Causes Social Anxiety Disorder?
• Cognitive theorists contend that people with this disorder
hold a group of social beliefs and expectations that
consistently work against them, including:
– They hold unrealistically high social standards and so believe
that they must perform perfectly in social situations.
– They view themselves as unattractive social beings.
– They view themselves as socially unskilled and inadequate.

– They believe they are always in danger of behaving
incompetently in social situations.
– They believe that inept behaviors in social situations will
inevitably lead to terrible consequences.
– They believe that they have no control over feelings of anxiety
that emerge during social situations.

Treatments for Social Anxiety Disorder
• Only in the past 15 years have clinicians been

able to treat social anxiety disorder successfully
• Two components must be addressed:
• Overwhelming social fear
– Address fears behaviorally with exposure

• Lack of social skills
– Social skills and assertiveness trainings have proved helpful

Social Media Jitters
• In recent years, researchers have learned that
computer and mobile device use can also produce
more common forms of anxiety, including social and
generalized anxiety
– Surveys suggest that more than one-third of Facebook
users develop a fear that others will post or use
information or photos of them without their permission

– One fourth of all users feel a constant pressure to disclose
too much personal information on their social networks,
and a number feel intense pressure to post material that
will be popular and get numerous comments and “likes.”
• Can you think of other negative feelings that might
be triggered by social networking? How about
positive feelings?

Panic Disorder
• Panic, an extreme anxiety reaction, can result

when a real threat suddenly emerges
• The experience of “panic attacks,” however, is
different
– Panic attacks are periodic, short bouts of panic that

occur suddenly, reach a peak, and pass
– Sufferers often fear they will die, go crazy, or lose
control
– Attacks happen in the absence of a real threat

Panic Disorder
• More than one-quarter of all people have one or

more panic attacks at some point in their lives,
but some people have panic attacks repeatedly,
unexpectedly, and without apparent reason
– Diagnosis: Panic disorder

• Sufferers also experience dysfunctional changes in thinking
and behavior as a result of the attacks
– For example, they may worry persistently about having an
attack or plan their behavior around possibility of future attack

Panic Disorder
• Panic disorder often (but not always)

accompanied by agoraphobia
– People are afraid to leave home and travel to
locations from which escape might be difficult or help
unavailable
– Intensity may fluctuate

– Until recently, clinicians failed to recognize the close
link between agoraphobia and panic attacks (or
panic-like symptoms)

What Biological Factors Contribute To Panic
Disorder?
• Neurotransmitter at work is norepinephrine
• Irregular in people with panic attacks
– Research suggests that panic reactions are related to changes
in norepinephrine activity in the locus ceruleus
– Research conducted in recent years has examined
brain circuits and the amygdala as the more complex

root of the problem
• It is possible that some people inherit a predisposition to
abnormalities in these areas

Panic Disorder: The Biological Perspective
• Drug therapies
– Antidepressants are effective at preventing or
reducing panic attacks
• Function at norepinephrine receptors in the panic brain circuit
• Bring at least some improvement to 80% of patients with
panic disorder

• Improvements require maintenance of drug therapy
• Some benzodiazepines (especially Xanax [alprazolam]) have
also proved helpful

Panic Disorder: The Cognitive Perspective
• Cognitive theorists recognize that biological

factors are only part of the cause of panic
attacks
– In their view, full panic reactions are experienced only
by people who misinterpret bodily events

– Cognitive treatment is aimed at correcting such
misinterpretations

• Misinterpreting bodily sensations

– Panic-prone people may be very sensitive to certain bodily
sensations and may misinterpret them as signs of a
medical catastrophe; this leads to panic
– Why might some people be prone to such
misinterpretations?
• Experience more frequent or intense bodily sensations

• Have experienced more trauma-filled events
– Whatever the precise cause, panic-prone people generally
have a high degree of “anxiety sensitivity”
• They focus on bodily sensations much of the time, are unable to
assess the sensations logically, and interpret them as potentially
harmful

• Cognitive therapy: tries to correct people's

misinterpretations of their bodily sensations
• Step 1: Educate
– About panic in general
– About the causes of bodily sensations

– About their tendency to misinterpret the sensations
• Step 2: Teach clients to apply more accurate
interpretations (especially when stressed)
• Step 3: Teach clients skills for coping with anxiety
– Examples: relaxation, breathing

• Cognitive therapy
– May also use “biological challenge” procedures to
induce panic sensations
• Induce physical sensations, which cause feelings of panic:
– Jump up and down
– Run up a flight of steps

• Practice coping strategies and making more accurate
interpretations

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
• Made up of two components:

– ______________
• Persistent thoughts, ideas, impulses, or images that seem to
invade a person's consciousness
– _______________
• Repetitive and rigid behaviors or mental acts that people feel

they must perform to prevent or reduce anxiety

• Diagnosis is called for when symptoms:

– Feel excessive or unreasonable
– Cause great distress
– Take up much time
– Interfere with daily functions

• Classified as an anxiety disorder because

obsessions cause anxiety, while compulsions are
aimed at preventing or reducing anxiety
– Anxiety rises if obsessions or compulsions are resisted
• Between 1% and 2% of U.S. population suffer from

OCD in a given year; as many as 3% over a lifetime
• It is equally common in men and women and among
different racial and ethnic groups
• It is estimated that more than 40% of those with
OCD seek treatment

What Are the Features of Obsessions and
Compulsions?
• Obsessions
– Thoughts that feel both intrusive and foreign
– Attempts to ignore or resist them trigger anxiety
• Take various forms:
– Wishes
– Impulses
– Images
– Ideas

– Doubts
• Have common themes:
– Dirt/contamination
– Violence and aggression
– Orderliness
– Religion
– Sexuality

Compulsions?
• Compulsions
– “Voluntary” behaviors or mental acts
• Feel mandatory/unstoppable
– Most recognize that their behaviors are unreasonable
• Believe, though, that something terrible will occur if they do
not perform the compulsive acts

– Performing behaviors reduces anxiety for a short time
– Behaviors often develop into rituals

Compulsions?
• Compulsions
– Common forms/themes:
• Cleaning
• Checking
• Order or balance
• Touching, verbal, and/or counting

Compulsions?
• Most people with OCD experience both
• Compulsive acts often occur in response to
obsessive thoughts
– Compulsions seem to represent a yielding to
obsessions

– Compulsions also sometimes serve to help control
obsessions

OCD: The Psychodynamic Perspective
• Anxiety disorders develop when children come

to fear their id impulses and use ego defense
mechanisms to lessen their anxiety
• OCD differs from other anxiety disorders in that
the “battle” is not unconscious; it is played out in

overt thoughts and actions
– Id impulses = obsessive thoughts
– Ego defenses = counter-thoughts or compulsive
actions

• The battle between the id and the ego

– Three ego defense mechanisms are common:
• Isolation: Disown disturbing thoughts
• Undoing: Perform acts to “cancel out” thoughts
• Reaction formation: Take on lifestyle in contrast to
unacceptable impulses

– Freud believed that OCD was related to the anal
stage of development
• Period of intense conflict between id and ego
• Not all psychodynamic theorists agree

• Psychodynamic therapies
– Goals are to uncover and overcome underlying
conflicts and defenses
– Main techniques are free association and
interpretation
– Research has offered little evidence

• Some therapists now prefer to treat these patients with short-
term psychodynamic therapies

OCD: The Behavioral Perspective
• In a fearful situation, they happen to perform a

particular act (washing hands)
– When the threat lifts, they associate the improvement
with the random act
• After repeated associations, they believe the

compulsion is changing the situation
– Bringing luck, warding away evil, etc.
• The act becomes a key method to avoiding or
reducing anxiety

OCD: The Behavioral Perspective
• Behavioral therapy
– Exposure and response prevention (ERP)
• Clients are repeatedly exposed to anxiety-provoking stimuli
and are told to resist performing the compulsions
• Therapists often model the behavior while the client watches
– Homework is an important component

• Between 55 and 85 percent of clients have been found to
improve considerably with ERP, and improvements often
continue indefinitely
– However, as many as 25% fail to improve at all, and the
approach is of limited help to those with obsessions but no
compulsions

OCD: The Cognitive Perspective
• Cognitive theorists begin by pointing out that

everyone has repetitive, unwanted, and intrusive
thoughts
– People with OCD blame themselves for normal
(although repetitive and intrusive) thoughts and

expect that terrible things will happen as a result

• To avoid such negative outcomes, they attempt

to “neutralize” their thoughts with actions (or
other thoughts)
• Neutralizing thoughts/actions may include:
– Seeking reassurance

– Thinking “good” thoughts
– Washing
– Checking

• If everyone has intrusive thoughts, why do only

some people develop OCD?
– People with OCD tend to:
• Be more depressed than others
• Have exceptionally high standards of conduct and morality
• Believe thoughts are equal to actions and are capable of

bringing harm
• Believe that they can, and should, have perfect control over
their thoughts and behaviors

• Cognitive therapists focus on the cognitive

processes that help to produce and maintain
obsessive thoughts and compulsive acts
– May include:
• Psychoeducation

• Guiding the client to identify, challenge, and change distorted
cognitions

• Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

– Research suggests that a combination of the
cognitive and behavioral models is often more
effective than either intervention alone
– These treatments typically include psychoeducation
as well as exposure and response prevention

exercises

OCD: The Biological Perspective
• Two recent lines of research provide more direct

evidence:
– Abnormal serotonin activity
• Evidence that serotonin-based antidepressants reduce OCD
symptoms; recent studies have suggested other
neurotransmitters also may play important roles

– Abnormal brain structure and functioning
• OCD linked to orbitofrontal cortex and caudate nuclei
– Frontal cortex and caudate nuclei compose brain circuit that
converts sensory information into thoughts and actions
– Either area may be too active, letting through troublesome
thoughts and actions

• Some research provides evidence that these two

lines may be connected
– Serotonin (with other neurotransmitters) plays a key
role in the operation of the orbitofrontal cortex and the
caudate nuclei
• Abnormal neurotransmitter activity could be contributing to

the improper functioning of the circuit

• Biological therapies
– Serotonin-based antidepressants
• Clomipramine (Anafranil), fluoxetine (Prozac), fluvoxamine
(Luvox)
• Bring improvement to 50–80% of those with OCD
• Relapse occurs if medication is stopped

– Research suggests that combination therapy
(medication + cognitive behavioral therapy
approaches) may be most effective

Obsessive-Compulsive-Related Disorders:
Finding a Diagnostic Home
• DSM-5 has created the group name obsessive-
compulsive-related disorders and assigned four
of these patterns to that group:
• Hoarding disorder
• Trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder)

• Excoriation (skinpicking) disorder
• Body dysmorphic disorder

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Anxiety, Obsessive-Compulsive, and

Copyright © 2015 by Worth Publishers. All rights reserved

Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

• What distinguishes fear from anxiety?

Copyright © 2015 by Worth Publishers. All rights reserved

Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

• Most common mental disorders in the U.S.

Copyright © 2015 by Worth Publishers. All rights reserved

Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

• Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

Copyright © 2015 by Worth Publishers. All rights reserved

Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

• Excessive anxiety under most circumstances and

Copyright © 2015 by Worth Publishers. All rights reserved

Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

Copyright © 2015 by Worth Publishers. All rights reserved

Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

• Freud believed that all children experience

Copyright © 2015 by Worth Publishers. All rights reserved

Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

• Psychodynamic therapists use the same general

Copyright © 2015 by Worth Publishers. All rights reserved

Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

• Theorists propose that GAD, like other

Copyright © 2015 by Worth Publishers. All rights reserved

Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

• Practitioners using this “client-centered”

Copyright © 2015 by Worth Publishers. All rights reserved

Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

• Initially, theorists suggested that GAD is caused

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Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

• New wave cognitive explanations

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Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

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Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

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Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

• Biological theorists believe that GAD is caused

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Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

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Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

• In normal fear reactions:

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Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

• Promising (but problematic) explanation

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Copyright © 2015 by Worth Publishers. All rights reserved

Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

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Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

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Abnormal Psychology | Ronald J. Comer | Ninth Edition

• From the Greek word for “fear”

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