Filters

• A filter” is a circuit which has the ability to discriminate between

signals at different frequencies because it has an attenuation that
varies with frequency in a particular manner.
• Four basic types of filter are the low-pass, the high-pass the band-
pass and the band-stop.
• Filters can be designed using one of the following different
techniques: inductor capacitor filters, crystal filters and active filters.
Low pass
• a low pass filter is a filter that passes signals with a frequency lower
than a selected cut-off frequency and attenuates signals with
frequencies higher than the cut-off frequency
• used to filter the wide band of signals according to their frequency
High pass
• high pass filter is an electronic filter that passes signals with a
frequency higher than a certain cutoff frequency and attenuates
signals with frequencies lower than the cutoff frequency
• it is used in an audio system to allow high frequencies to get through
while filtering or cutting low frequencies
• also used with small speakers to remove bass
Band pass
• a band pass filter is a device that passes frequencies within a certain
range and rejects frequencies outside that range
• in a receiver a band pass allows signals within a selected range of
frequencies to be heard or decoded while preventing signals at
unwanted frequencies from going through
• optimises the signal to noise ratio and sensitivity
Band stop
• band stop is a filter that passes most frequencies unaltered but
attenuates those in a specific range to very low levels
Inductor capacitor filter
• The transmission of an unwanted frequency through a network can be prevented
either by connecting a high impedance (at that frequency) in series, and/or by
connecting a low impedance in shunt, with the signal path.
• The high series impedance will oppose the flow of currents, at the unwanted
frequencies, through the network, and the shunt impedance will bypass
unwanted currents to earth.
• The necessary high and low values of impedance can be obtained by the use of
inductors and capacitors of appropriate value
• This is because an inductor has a reactance which is directly proportional to
frequency and the reactance of capacitor is inversely proportional to frequency.
• If a particular band of frequencies to be transmitted by a filter, series and shunt
impedances are required which reach a maximum or a minimum value at the
centre of the frequency band.
THE PROTOTYPE OR CONSTANT- K FILTER A
LOW-PASS
• Filter should be able to pass, with zero attenuation, all frequencies
from zero up to a certain frequency which is known as the CUT-OFF
FREQUENCY (Fc). At frequencies greater than the cut-off frequency
the attenuation of the filter will increase with increase in frequency
up to very high value.
Low pass
• The basic prototype (or constant-k) T and pi low-pass filter circuits. For
both circuits the total series impedance is ῳL and the total shunt
impedance is 1/ῳc. The term "constant-k" is used to denote that the
product of the series and shunt impedances is a constant at all frequencies
• Suppose a voltage source of Variable frequency is applied across the input
terminals of the filter. At low frequencies the reactance of the series
inductor L is low and the reactance of the shunt capacitor C is high; at
these frequencies therefore the inductance offers little opposition to the
flow of current while the capacitance has zero shunting effect.
• Low frequency signals are propagated through the filter without loss. As
the frequency of the input signal is increased, the inductive reactance will
rise until, at the cut-off frequency fc, the attenuation of the filter suddenly
increases. Thereafter, the attenuation of the filter rises rapidly with
increase in frequency
High-pass
• The action of a HIGH-PASS filter is to transmit all frequencies which
are higher than its out- off frequency and to prevent the passage of
all lower frequencies.
• At low frequencies the series capacitance C has a high reactance and
the shunt inductive reactance is low, so low-frequency signals are
attenuated as they travel through the filter. At high frequencies, on,
the other hand, the series reactance is low and the shunt reactance is
high and the filter offers zero attenuation
Band pass
• Ideally, the filter passes with zero attenuation, a particular band of
frequencies and offers considerable attenuation to all frequencies outside
of this pass band.
• The required characteristic is obtained by using two series-tuned circuits as
the series impedance and a single parallel-tuned circuit as the shunt
impedance
• The three circuits are arranged to be resonant at the same frequency. For
signal at or near this common resonant frequency, the series reactance is
low and the shunt reactance is high so that the filter offers, ideally, zero
attenuation.
• At frequencies either side of the required pass band the tuned circuit
impedance have varied to such an extent that considerable attenuation is
offered.
Band stop
• This type of filter provides a large attenuation to signals whose
frequencies are within a particular frequency band
• The Constant-k filter suffers from two major disadvantages, these are
the attenuation/ frequency characteristics do not rise at the Cut-off
frequency as sharply as is often required, and its input and output
impedance vary with frequency.
M-derived filter
• In m-derived filter, components are added to the basic constant-k circuit to
ensure that a very high attenuation is obtained at a particular frequency.
• The attenuation can be made to reach very high value at a desired frequency
f(lnf) by multiplying the values of its components by a constant m and connecting
an inductor Lm of a suitable value in series with the shunt capacitor
• Neglecting circuit resistance, the filter will now have infinite attenuation at the
frequency at which the shunt series-tuned circuit is resonant.
• The attenuation/frequency characteristic of the m-derived low-pass filter is
shown that it can be seen that the attenuation rises above zero at the cut-off
frequency fc and increases to a very high value at some frequency f (inf).
• Unfortunately, at frequencies above the attenuation of the filter falls and will
eventually reach a low value.
• The attenuation of an m-derived filter section decreases with increase
in frequency above the frequency of maximum attenuation. This
disadvantage can be overcome by connecting constant-k filter section
in cascade to ensure substantial attenuation at all frequencies above
cut-off. The block diagram of a composite filter is shown.
Modern filter deigns
• The Butterworth attenuation/frequency characteristic of a low-pass filter is
shown is it is maximally flat in the passband and has an attenuation of 3dB
at the cut- off frequency fc.
• The Bessel filter introduces a constant time delay to all frequencies in the
passband and has 3dB, loss at the cut-off frequency. It is evident that the
attenuation of the Bessel filter does not rise as rapid1y as that of the
Butterworth filter.
• A more rapid increase in attenuation outside of the passband can be
obtained by the Tchebyscheff filter at the expense however of ripple in the
passband. The relative merits of the three approaches to filter design are
the same when applied to the other kinds of filters, e.g. high-pass.
Crystal filters
• For some applications the maximum selectivity a band pass L-C filter
can attain is inadequate, and in such cases a crystal filter can be
employed. A crystal filter is one in which the required series and
shunt impedances are provided by piezoelectric crystals.
PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTALS
• A piezoelectric crystal is a material, such as quartz, having the
property that, if Subjected to a mechanical stress, a potential
difference is developed across it, and if the stress is reversed a p.d. of
opposite polarity is developed.
• Conversely, the application of a potential difference to a piezoelectric
crystal causes the crystal to be stressed in a direction depending on
the polarity of the applied voltage.
• In its natural state, quartz crystal is of hexagonal cross section with
pointed ends. if a small, thin plate is cut from a crystal the plate will
have a particular natural frequency, and if an alternating voltage at its
natural frequency is applied across it, the plate will vibrate vigorously
• The natural frequency of a crystal plate depends upon its dimensions,
the mode of Vibration and its original position or "cut" in the crystal.
The important characteristic of a particular cut are its natural
frequency and its temperature coefficient; one cut the GT cut, has a
negligible temperature coefficient over a temperature range from O o
C to 100o C; another cut, the AT cut, has a temperature coefficient
that varies from about +10 p.p.m. / o C at 0o C to 0 p.p.m. /o C at 40o
C and about +20 p.p.m. / o C at 90 o C.
• Crystal plates are available with fundamental natural frequencies
from 4 kHz up to about 10 MHz or so. For higher frequencies the
required plate thickness is very small and the plate is fragile; however,
a crystal can be operated at a harmonic of its fundamental frequency
and such “over stone” operation raises the possible upper frequency
to about 100MHz
• The inductance L represents the inertia of the mass of the crystal
Plate when it is Vibrating; the capacitance C1 represents the
Reciprocal of the stiffness of the crystal plate; and the Resistance R
represents the frictional losses of the vibrating plate. The capacitance
C2 is the actual capacitance of the crystal (a piezoelectric crystal is an
electrical insulator and is mounted between two conducting plates)
• A series-parallel circuit has two resonant frequencies: the resonant
frequency of the series arm R-L-C1 and the parallel resonance
produced by C2 and the effective inductance of the series arm at a
frequency above its (series) resonant frequency.
Filters in parallel
• Frequency-division multiplex is the transmission of two or more channels,
over a single circuit by the positioning of the channels at different part of
the frequency spectrum of that circuit.
• At the receiving end of an f.d.m. system the received signals must be
directed, to their correct channels and this is achieved by means of a
number of band-pass filters connected in parallel.
• The two filters at the extreme ends of the system bandwidth only have
another filter connected on one side of them. If these two filters are to be
correctly terminated it is necessary to connect a compensating network in
parallel with the load.
• This network provides the necessary impedance values at frequencies
below the lowest frequency and above the highest frequency passed by
the filters, in order for the two extreme filters to be correctly terminated.
Active filters
• Inductors are relatively large and bulky components particularly at the
lower frequencies, and also possess core and winding losses that are
difficult to predict accurately and which may vary with time, temperature
and/or frequency.
• The acts as a low-pass filter which can be given a Butterworth, a Bessel or a
Tchebyscheff characteristic depending upon the values chosen for the
various components.
• Changing over the position of the resistors and capacitors, produces a high-
pass filter with the required type of Attenuation/frequency characteristic.
• Lastly, a band-pass characteristic is obtained by connecting the resistance-
capacitance network in the manner.