Guideline Note - Chap 4

Water and
Its
Properties
CHAPTER 4
Structure of Water
STRUCTURE OF WATER
H H
1 molecule of water is
made up of???
STRUCTURE OF WATER
H H
The bond that forms water

is a covalent bond
Covalent Bonds
• A covalent bond is ______________________
• If two atoms come close enough that their unshared

orbitals overlap, each atom can count both electrons
toward its goal of filling the valence shell
• Valence shell??
For example, if two hydrogen atoms come close
enough that their orbitals overlap, then they can share
the single electrons that each contributes
• Covalent bonds can form between atoms of the same
element or atoms of different elements
• While both types are molecules, the latter are also
compounds
• E.g: Water, H2O, is a compound in which two
hydrogen atoms form single covalent bonds with an
oxygen atom
• Two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds constitute a
molecule
• We can abbreviate the structure of this molecule by substituting

a line for each pair of shared electrons, drawing the structural
formula
• H-H is the structural formula for the covalent bond between
two hydrogen atoms
• The molecular formula indicates the number and types of

atoms present in a single molecule
• H2 is the molecular formula for hydrogen gas
• Electronegativity???
• If the electrons in a covalent bond are not shared
equally by the two atoms, then this is a polar covalent
bond
• The bonds between oxygen and hydrogen in water are
polar covalent because oxygen has a much higher
electronegativity than does hydrogen
Hydrogen Bond
• Hydrogen bonds form when a hydrogen atom that
is already covalently bonded to a strongly
electronegative atom is attracted to another
strongly electronegative atom
• These strongly electronegative atoms are typically

nitrogen or oxygen
• In the water molecule, the hydrogen atoms have
partial positive charges and oxygen atom partial
negative charges
• Areas with opposite charges are attracted
Properties of Water
Polarity of water molecules results from
hydrogen bonding
• In a water molecule two hydrogen atoms form
single polar covalent bonds with an oxygen atom
• Because oxygen is more electronegative, the
region around oxygen has a partial negative
charge
• The region near the two hydrogen atoms has a
partial positive charge
• A water molecule is a polar molecule with
opposite ends of the molecule with opposite
charges
Organisms depend on the cohesion of
water molecules
• Water molecules have a strong tendency to
stick to one another, a property known as
_______________.
• This is due to the hydrogen bonds among the
molecules.
• Water molecules also display adhesion, the ability to
______________________________________________________________
• These adhesive forces explain how water makes
things wet.
• Surface tension  ________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
• Water has a greater surface tension than most
other liquids because hydrogen bonds among
surface water molecules resist stretching or
breaking the surface
• Water behaves as if
covered by an invisible
film
Water moderates temperatures on Earth
• Water stabilizes air temperatures by absorbing
heat from warmer air and releasing heat to
cooler air
• Water can absorb or release relatively large
amounts of heat with only a slight change in its
own temperature
• When two object of different
temperature meet, heat passes from
the warmer to the cooler until the two
are the same temperature
• Ice cubes cool a drink by absorbing
heat as the ice melts
• In most biological settings,
temperature is measured on the
Celcius scale (oC).
Water stabilizes temperature because it has a
high specific heat
• The specific heat of a substance is the amount of
heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1g of that
substance to change its temperature by 1oC
• By definition, the specific heat of water is 1 cal per
gram per degree Celcius or 1 cal/g/oC
• Water has a high specific heat compared to other
substances.
• For example, ethyl alcohol has a specific heat of
0.6 cal/g/oC
• Water’s high specific heat is due to hydrogen
bonding
• Heat must be absorbed to break hydrogen
bonds and is released when hydrogen bonds
form
• Investment of one calorie of heat causes
relatively little change to the temperature of
water because much of the energy is used to
disrupt hydrogen bonds, not move molecules
faster
• The transformation of a molecule from a liquid to a
gas is called vaporization or evaporation
• This occurs when the molecule moves fast
enough that it can overcome the attraction of
other molecules in the liquid
• Heating a liquid increases the average kinetic
energy and increases the rate of evaporation
• As a liquid evaporates, the surface of the liquid that
remains behind cools - evaporative cooling
• This occurs because the most energetic molecules
are the most likely to evaporate, leaving the lower
kinetic energy molecules behind
• For this reason, the human body can dissipate
excess heat as sweat evaporates from skin, and a
leaf can keep cool in bright sunlight as water
evaporates from its surface.
Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid
because ice floats
• Water is unusual because it is less dense as a

solid than as a liquid
• Most materials contract as they solidify, but
water expands
• Water begins to freeze when its molecules
are no longer moving vigorously enough to
break their hydrogen bonds
• When water reaches 0oC, water becomes locked
into a crystalline lattice with each molecule bonded
to the maximum of four partners
• As ice starts to melt, some of the hydrogen bonds
break and some water molecules can slip closer
together than they can while in the ice state
• Ice is about 10% less dense than water at 4 oC
Water is the solvent of life
• Solvent??
• Solute??
• Solution??
• Any substance that has an affinity for water is
hydrophilic
• Substances that have no affinity for water are
hydrophobic
• Hydrophobic molecules are major ingredients of cell
membranes
Aqueous Solution
Aqueous Solution
• Water molecule dissociates into a hydrogen ion and a
hydroxide ion:
• H2O <=> H+ + OH-
• This reaction is reversible

• The hydrogen atom leaves its electron behind and is
transferred as a single proton - a hydrogen ion (H+)
• The water molecule that lost a proton is now a
hydroxide ion (OH-)
Organisms are sensitive to changes in pH
• What is acid??
• What is base??
• pH scale??
• Some acids and bases (HCl and NaOH) are
strong acids or bases  these molecules
dissociate completely in water
• Other acids and bases (NH3) are weak acids or

bases  these molecules, the binding and
release of hydrogen ions are reversible
• The pH of a neutral solution is 7
• Acidic solutions have pH values less than 7 and
basic solutions have pH values more than 7
• Most biological fluids have pH values in the range
of 6 to 8
• However, pH values in the human stomach can
reach 2
• To maintain cellular pH values at a constant level,
biological fluids have buffers
• Buffers???

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Guideline Note - Chap 4

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Water and

The bond that forms water

• If two atoms come close enough that their unshared

• We can abbreviate the structure of this molecule by substituting

• The molecular formula indicates the number and types of

• These strongly electronegative atoms are typically

• Water is unusual because it is less dense as a

• This reaction is reversible

• Other acids and bases (NH3) are weak acids or

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