Public Administration

• The word “Administer” is derived from the latin word “ad” and “ministrare” which means to
“to serve” or “to look after people”.

• To administer is to manage or to direct the affairs.

• The word “public” before administration restricts its coverage to the administrative activities
of the government.

• Public Administration is an ancient activity

• As economic, social, cultural and technological factors change with time, so do societies
change differ from country to country.

• As a result, public administration’s structures and activities also vary from nation to nation.

• Public administration is a wider field of administration.

• In fact, Public administration is governmental administration.

 Defining Administration
• Administration is a kind of activity found in both public and business affaires.
J.S Hodgson
• Administration can be defined as the activities of groups co-operatiing to
accomplish common goals.
H.Simon
• Administration is the organization and direction of human and material resources to
achieve desired ends.
J.M Pfifner
• The art of Administration is the direction, co-ordination and control of many
persons to achieve some purpose or objective
L.D White
• Administration is determined action taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose. It is
the systematic ordering of affairs and the calculated use of resources, aimed at
making things happen which one wants to happen and foretalling everything to the
contrary.
F.M Marx
 Defining Public Administration
• “Public administration is that part of science of administration which has to do with
government and, thus, concerns itself, primarily with the executive branch , where
the work of the government is done there are, obviously, problems also in
connection with the legislative and judicial branches”
Luther Gullick
• “Public Administration consists of doing the work of government, whether it be
running of X-ray machine in a health laboratory or coining money in the mint”
J.M Pfifner
• “Public Administration is the art and science of management as applied to the affairs
of state.”
Waldo

• “Public Administration is a detailed and systematic execution of law. Every

particular application of law is an act of administration.”
Woodrow Wilson
• “Public administration is concerned with the administration of the
government.”
E.N Gladden
• “The work which the government does to give effect to law is called Public
Administration.”
H. Walker
• “Public Administration is administration related to the operations of
Government whether central or local.”
P. Mcqueen
• “Public Administration is the action part of the government, the means by
which the purpose and goals of the government are realized”
Corson & Harris
• “Public Administration has come to signify primarily the organization,
personnel, practices and procedures essential to effective performance of
the civilian functions entrusted to the execution branch of government.”
F.M Marx
 Evolution of Public Administration
• The term public administration have two implications

1. It refers to the activity of administering the affairs of government, like

enforcement of law and order

2. It refers to a field of study

• Public administration as an aspect of governmental activity is as old as

political society i.e. it has been co-existing with the political systems to
accomplish the objectives set by the political decision makers.

• As a field of systematic study, public administration is much more recent.

• The evolution of public administration is divided into
five stages:

1. Politics and Administration Dichotomy (1887 to 1926)

2. Principles of Administration (1927 to 1938)

3. Era of Challenge (1938 to 1947)

4. Crisis of Identity (1948 to 1970)

5. New Public Administration (1971 onwards)

 Politics and Administration Dichotomy (1887 to 1926)

• This marks the beginning of public administration as a discipline

• The basic theme during this stage was the advocacy for the separation
of politics from administration.

• The stage began with the publication of Woodrow Wilson’s essay “The
Study of Administration” in the political science quarterly in 1887.

• This essay laid the foundation for a separate, independent and

systematic study in Public administration.

• Hence, Wilson is regarded as the “ Father of Public Administration”

• Wilson argued that politics is concerned with policy making while
administration is concerned with implementation of policy decisions.

• In his word…. “the administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics.
Administrative questions are not political questions. Although politics sets
the task for administration….”

• Wilson described public administration as a field of business.

• He observed that “the field of administration is a field of business. It is

removed from the study of the hurry and strife of politics”

• He further observed that “Administration is a part of political life only as the

methods of the counting house are a part of the life of society; only as a
machinery is part of the manufactured product”

• Wilson believed administration is a science.

• Wilson said that “the science of administration is the part of latest fruit of that study
of science of politics which has began some twenty two hundred years ago. It is a
birth of our country, almost of our generation. We are having now, what we never had
before, a science of administration.”

• He called for a separate study of public administration.

• His basic argument was that “it is getting harder to run a constitution than it is to
frame.”

• Hence, there should be a science of administration, which shall seek

A. to straighten the paths of government
b. to make its business more business like
c. to strengthen and purify its organization
d. to crown its duties with dutifulness

• The Wilsonian line of thought was further continued by Frank J. Goodnow in his
book “Politics and Administration” published in 1900. He made a sharp conceptual
distinction between two functions of government i.e. politics and administration.
• Goodnow said, “Politics has to do with politics or expressions of the state
will, whereas, administration has to do with the execution of these
policies.”

• Goodnow is regarded as “Father of American Public Administration.”

• In 1926, L.D. White’s “Introduction to the Study of Public Administration”

was published. It was the first text book on public administration.
 Principles of Administration
(1927 to 1938)

• This stage began with the publications of W.F Wiloughby’s

Principles of Public Administration in 1927.

• He asserted that, “In administration there are certain fundamental

principles of general application…..”

• The focus of this stage was on the efficiency and economy of public
administration

• The general belief in this stage was that there are certain principles of
administration and it is the task of the scholars to highlight them and
promote their application
I. F.W. Taylor’s Shop Management in 1903

II. F.W Taylor’s The Principles of scientific management

1911

III. H. Fayol’s Industrial and General Management in 1916

IV. M.P Follet’s Creative Experience in 1924

V. Mooney and Reiley’s Onward Industry in 1931

VI. Gullick and Urwick’s papers on the science of

administration in 1937
• This stage of evolution reached its zenith with the appearance of Gullick
and Urwick’s papers on the science of administration in 1937

• They stated that “it is the general thesis of this paper that there are
principles which can be arrived at inductively from the study of human
organization which should govern arrangements for human association of
any kind. These principle can be studied as a technical question,
irrespective of the purpose of the enterprise, the personnel comprising it,
or any constitutional, political theory or social theory underlying its
creation.”

• Public administration reached to its reputational zenith during this stage

 Era of Challenge (1938 to 1947)

• The main theme during this stage was the advocacy of “Human relations-behavioural
approach” to the study of public administration

• The defining principles of public administration were challenged.

• It was argued that the administration cannot be separated from politics because of its political
nature and role.

• Administration is not only concerned with the implementation of political policy decisions,
but plays also important role in policy formulation which is domain of politics.

• In other words, the idea of politics-administration dichotomy was rejected.

• Similarly, principles of administration were challenged and criticized on the grounds of lack of
scientific validity and universal relevancy. Hence they were dubbed as “proverbs and
naturalistic fallacies”
• Moreover, the principles approach to organizational analysis was criticized
as a mechanistic approach due to its emphasis on the formal structure of
organization and neglect of socio-psychological aspects of organizational
behavior.

• Elton Mayo’s Hawthrone experiment shook the foundations of principles

approach.

• H.A Simon was the most important critic of principles of administration and
described them as “proverbs”

• He advocated the behavioral approach to public administration

• Simon said that “….decision making is the heart of administration….”

• Simon recommended an empirical approach to study of public administration

and advocated logical positivism
• The important publications that challenged public
administration in this stage were

A. C.I Barnard: The functions of Executive (1938)

B. F.M. Marx: Elements of Public Administration

(1946)

C. H.A Simon: The Proverbs of Administration (1946)

D. Robert Dahl: The science of Public administration:

Three Problems (1947)
 Crisis of Identity
(1948 to 1970)

• With the rejection of politics-administration dichotomy and principle of

administration, public administration suffered from the crisis of identity.

Consequently scholars of public administration reacted in two ways

1. Some of them returned to the fold of political sciences . However, they were
not encouraged by political scientist. John Gaus in his article entitled “Trends
in the theory of public administration” (1950) developed a thesis that “a
theory of public administration means in our time a theory of politics also.”
Further, Rasco Martin in his 1952 article, called for continued “dominion of
poolitical science over public administration.”

2. Some others moved towards the administrative science. They argued that
administration is administration irrespective of its setting. They founded the
journal of administrative science quarterly in 1956.
• In this stage, public administration lost its separate entity and distinctiveness and it
has to merge with the larger field.

• That is why this stage in the evolution of public administration is called as the
“stage of crisis of identity”

• Various developments took place during this phase include

1. Rise of New Human Relations Approach advocated by Chris Argyis, Douglas
Mcgregor, Rensis Likert, Warren Bennis

2. Growth of Comparative Public Administration

3. Advocacy of Ecological Approach to the study of Public Administration by F.W.

Riggs

4. Emergence of New Public Administration

5. Advocacy of Public Choice approach by Vincent Ostrum

 New Public Administration
(1971 onwards)
• The main theme in this stage of evolution for public policy analysis.

• Public administration are showing are showing interest in the related fields of policy science,
political economy, policy making, policy analysis etc.

• Public policy approach got acceptance in administrative analysis as the traditional idea of
politics-administration dichotomy was abandoned.

• Dwight Waldo concluded that the separation between politics –administration had become an
“outworn credo”

• According to Robert T. Golembiewski, Public policy approach stage in the evolution of public
administration is built on two basic themes
A. the interrelation of politics and administration at all levels.

B. The pragmatic character of all administration

• With the adoption of public policy approach, public administration has become inter-
disciplinary, gained social relevance and expanded its scope.
• Nicholas Henry has described the five paradigms in the
intellectual development of Public Administration in the
following manner

1. The politics/administration dichotomy (1990-1926)

2. The principles of administration (1927 to 1937)

3. Public administration as political science (1950 to 1970)

4. Public administration as administrative science (Management)

(1956-1970)

5. Public administration as Public administration (1970 onwards)

• Robert T. Golembiewski noted four phases in the
historical development of public administration

1. Analytic Politics/Administration

2. Concrete Politics/Administration

3. A Science of Management

4. Public-Policy approach
Significance of Public Administration
If our civilization fails, it will be mainly because of a breakdown of administration
W.B Donham

For the forms of government let fools contest; whatever is administrated best, is the best
Alexander Pope

While government may come and go, ministers may rise and fall, the administration of a country goes
on for ever.
Ramsay Muir

The officials must be the mainspring of the new society, suggesting, promoting and advising at every
stage
Sir Josia Stamp

The society is becoming more and more dependent on the political system, which in turn is becoming
more and more dependent on the administrative system
Gerald Caiden
Administration is an important human faculty because its chief function is
to facilitate social change and to cushion the stocks of social revolution
Brooks Adams

Administration is the science of contemporary civilization. There, is no

subject more important than this subject of administration. The future of
civilized government and even, I think of civilization itself rests upon our
ability to develop a science and a philosophy and a practice of
administration competent to discharge the functions of civilized society.
C.A Beard
Administration is now so vast an area that a philosophy of administration
comes close to being a philosophy of life
M.E Dimock
Administration is the basis of government. No administration can exist
without administration. Without administration government would be a
discussion club…
Paul H. Appleby
• Gerald Caiden in his Book The dynamics of Public Administration says that public
administration has assumed the following crucial roles in contemporary modern society

1. Preservation of the polity

2. Maintenance of stability and order

3. Institutionalization of socio-economic change

4. Management of large scale commercial services

5. Ensuring growth and development

6. Protection of the weaker sections of society

7. Formation of public opinion

8. Influencing public policies and political trends

 Weber’s Bureaucratic Theory
•The term bureaucracy was first coined by Vincent De Gourney, a French Economist in 1745

•In French, the word “Bureau” means a desk

•The classical writings on bureaucracy came from Karl Marx, Robert Michels and Gaetano
Mosca.

•Robert Michels in his book Political Parties propounded the concept of Iron Law of Oligarchy.
According to this concept, large organizations have a tendency to develop a bureaucratic
structure (Oligarchic system).

•In other words, it states in big organizations power is concentrated in the hands of a few.

•Gaetano Mosca in his book The Ruling Class classified the political system into two categories
i.e. feudal and bureaucratic. He said that the bureaucracy is the basic to the governance of big
empires
• However, the systematic study of bureaucracy began with Max weber, the German sociologist

• According to Marx, bureaucracy is an instrument by which the dominant class

exercises its domination over other social classes.

• Marx Weber holds a unique position in the galaxy of administrative –political

thinkers who made an attempt to explain the concept of bureaucracy

• The scientific treatment of bureaucracy came from his writings.

• Max weber called his formulation of bureaucracy as “Ideal Type”

• Weber defined power as “The probability that one actor within a social
relationship will be in a position to carry out his own will, despite resistance,”
while, authority as “the probability that a command with a given specific
content will be obeyed by a group of persons.”
• Thus, compared to power, authority is characterized by legitimacy i.e. voluntary obedience of the
command by the subordinates.

• In other words, legitimacy turns power into authority

• According to weber, authority is synonymous to “authoritarian power of command” and he called it

domination

• He stated that all administration means domination

• Reinhard Bendix in his book Max Weber: An intellectual Portrait, summarized components of
authority as identified by weber. They are

I. An individual or a body of individuals who rule

II. An individual or a body of individuals who ruled

III. The will of the rulers to influence the conduct of the ruled and an expression of that will or
command

IV. Direct or indirect evidences of that influence in terms of the subjective acceptance with which the
ruled obey the command
• Weber identified three bases of authority

Traditional Authority:
According to weber, this authority rests “on an established belief in the sanctity
of immemorial traditions…..”

In other words, the obedience under this system is owed to the ruler who
occupies the traditionally sanctioned position of authority and who is bound by
tradition.

Charismatic Authority:
The term “charisma” literally means the gift of grace. According to weber, this
authority rests on “devotion to specific and exceptional sancity, heroism or
exemplary character of an individual…..”

Thus the ruler under this system, possess the superhuman and supernatural
qualities and is obeyed by virtue of personal trust in him and his revelation
 Legal-Rational Authority:
According to weber, this authority rests on “on a belief in the legality of
patterns of normative rules and right of those elevated to authority under such
rules to issue commands”

Thus, obedience under this system is owed to the legally established

impersonal order which is rational in character.

It extends authority only by virtue of the formal legality of their commands

and only within the scope of authority of the office.

This system is called rational because in it the means are expressly designed
to achieve certain specific ends.

It is legal because authority is exercised by means of a system of rules and

procedures.
• According to Weber, the legal rational authority depends on related
beliefs. These are:

1. A legal code can be established which can claim obedience from

members of the organization

2. Administration looks after the interests of the organization within

the limits of law which is a system of abstract rules and are applied
to particular cases

3. The man exercising authority also obeys this impersonal order

4. The obedience is not to the person who holds the authority but to
the impersonal order which has appointed him/her to that position.
 Characteristics of Bureaucracy
• The ideal type of legal rational bureaucracy designed by Weber has following
characteristics:

1. The bureaucrats are subject to authority only in official capacities and they are
personally free.

2. They are organized in a clearly defined hierarchy of offices, i.e., each lower office
is under the control and supervision of a higher office

3. Each office has a clearly defined sphere of competence in the legal sense. A
specified sphere of competence involves:

a. A sphere of obligations to perform functions which has been marked off.

b. The provisions of the incumbent with the necessary authority to carry out these
functions.

4. The office is filled by a free contractual relationship

5. The officials are selected on the basis of technical
qualification. They are appointed, not elected

6. The officials are remunerated by fixed salaries.

7. The official is always free to resign and his appointment can be

terminated by employing authority under certain circumstances

8. It constitutes a career with system of promotion according to

sonority or achievement or both

9. Officer is subject to strict and systematic discipline & control

in the conduct of the office.
• According to Mohit Bhattacharya, Weberian formulation of bureaucracy has structural
properties and behavioral characteristics.

• Structural Properties includes

1. Division of Work

2. Hierarchy

3. System of Rules

4. Role Specificity

• Behavioral Characteristics includes

1. Rationality

2. Impersonality

3. Rule orientation

4. Neutrality
• According to weber, the following factors are responsible for the rise
of bureaucracy
a. Creation of money economy

b. Emergence of capitalist economy

c. Growth of democratic institutions

d. Emergence of complex administrative problems

e. Development of modern means of communication

f. Growth of rationalism

g. Growth of population
 Critics of Weber
• Webers bureaucratic model was criticized on various grounds

1. It was characterized as machine theory due to its concern with formal

structure of the organization to the neglect of human dimensions

2. It was described as a closed system model as it didn’t take into

account in detail the interaction between organization and its
environment

3. It cannot function in an unstable environment

4. It is suitable for routine and repetitive jobs but not for jobs involving
creativity and innovation
 Post Weberian Development
Mary Parkar Follet:
• She is regarded as a bridge between the classical approach and the
behavioral-human relations approach.
• She highlighted the sociological and psychological dimensions of
administration
• She criticized the classical theory of administration mainly for its
mechanical approach and for neglecting socio-psychological dimensions
• The various concepts and principles enunciated by her include
1. Conflict & Integration:
• According to Follet, Conflict is an inevitable thing in an organization
• Conflict is not a war but difference in opinions
• She propounded the concept of “Constructive Conflict”
• She suggested three ways to resolve conflict
a. Domination
b. Compromise
c. Integration
2. New Concept of Power:
• According to Follet, power is the ability to make things happen
• She distinguished between power-over and power-with
• Power-over: is an independent power, which is used only for
the benefit of an individual
• Power-with: is a self entity which encourages cooperative
effort and arises when two individuals pool their power to
arrive at a settlement which is satisfactory to both
3. Authority & Responsibility:
• She advocated that the authority is derived from the function or the job
performed and not from the position held.
• In otherwords, authority belongs to the job and stays with job.
• As authority belongs to the job, it cannot be delegated.
• She rejected delegation of the authority
• Authority must be functional and functional authority carries with it
responsibility
• She advocated the concept of “functional authority” or “pluralistic
authority” or “cumulative authority”
• She also propounded concept of “functional responsibility” or “pluralistic
responsibility” or “cumulative responsibility”
• She said, it is a question of “for what is one responsible” rather than “to
whom one is responsible”
4. Leadership:
• According to Follet, a leader is not the head of the department or president of the organization but one who
can see all around a situation….and understands how to pass from one situation to another”

• Follet opined that the leader not only influences his group but is also influenced by it. She called this
reciprocal relationship as “circular response”

• As per Follet, the functions of the leader is to create a group power(power with) rather than to exercise
personal power (power-over)

• Follet advocated four types of leadership

a. Leadership of position: the leader holds a position of formal authority

b. Leadership of personality: the leader holds a forceful personal qualities

c. Leadership of function: the leader holds both position and personality

• She also defined the functions of leadership:

a. Coordination

b. Definition of purpose

c. Anticipation

d. To develop leadership among subordinates

5. Planning and Coordination
• Follet established a close nexus between planning and
coordination

• She postulated four principles of coordination

a. Coordination by direct contact

b. Coordination in the early stages

c. Coordination as a continuous process

d. Coordination as the reciprocal phenomena

 C.I BARNARD
• He is regarded as the spiritual father of the social system school
• The various concepts of Barnard include
1. Formal organization as a cooperative system:
According to Barnard, organization has three elements
a. Communication
b. Willingness to cooperate (to serve)
c. Common purpose(objectives)
2. Informal Organization as a Natural System:
• He defined Informal organization as “the aggregate of the
personal contacts and interactions and the associate groupings of
the people”
• Both formal and informal organizations coexist in an organization
3. Theory of Contribution-Satisfaction Equilibrium:
• According to Barnard, survival of an organization depends on the
maintenance of an equilibrium between the contributions and the satisfaction.
• The contribution is provided by the participants while as satisfaction is
provided by the organization.

• Barnard rejected the classical economic concept and traced the source of
satisfaction to four specific inducements:

a. Material Inducements such as money

b. Personal non-material opportunities for distinction

c. Desirable physical working conditions

d. Ideal benefactions such as pride of workmanship and so on

4. Acceptance theory of Authority:

• Barnard rejected the traditional theory of authority advocated by weber and

advocated the acceptance theory of authority

• According to this theory, the basis of legitimacy of the superior’s authority is the
acceptance of it by the subordinate.

• He stated, that a subordinate will accept authority only when four conditions occur
simultaneously

a. When subordinate understands the communication (intelligibility)

b. When the communication is not inconsistent with the purpose of the organization

c. When the communication is compatible with his personal interest as a whole

d. When he is able to mentally & physically compel with the communication .

• The acceptance of authority, according to Barnard, is facilitated by “the
Zone of Indifference”
• He said that the orders will be accepted by the subordinate so long as they
fall within this zone.
• Hence, the executives should issue only those orders which fall within this
zone.
• The extent of the zone of indifference is determined by the contribution-
satisfaction equilibrium.
 Participative Management
• The human relations theory advocated the style of participative
management.

• It refers to the participation of workers in decision making with

regard to their work and work conditions

• In other words, the manager should consult the work groups and their
informal leaders before introducing a change of programme or work
schedule.

• Participative management style is in direct contrast to scientific

management of F.W Taylor.
• This style of management has following merits:

1. It permits workers to discuss with supervisors and influence the

decisions that affect them

2. It develops a sense of participation in the group

3. It results in higher productivity

4. It makes the working environment more pleasant

5. It prevents the alienation of workers from management

6. It facilitates the acceptance of organizational goals by the workers.

 Chris Argyis
Immaturity-maturity Theory:
• According to Chris Argyis, people in organization have a tendency to grow from an immature
state to a mature one.

• This progression consists of the following seven developments:

a. From infant passivity towards adult activity

b. From dependence towards relative independence

c. From limited behavior to many different behaviors

d. From erratic, shallow, brief interests to more stable, deeper interests

e. From short term perspective to long term perspective

f. From subordinate social position to an equal or superordinate social position

g. From lack of self awareness to self awareness and self control

Fusion Process Theory:

• Chris Argyis and E.W Bakke developed the Fusion Process Theory.

• According to this theory, both organization and the individual seek

to attain self realization.

• The individual uses the organizations to pursue his/her own goals.

This is called as personalizing process.

• Similarly, organizations used the individuals to reach its own goals

and objectives. This is called as socializing process.

• The simultaneous operations of both these processes is called as

the Fusion Process Theory
Integrating Individual and Organizational Goals:
• Chris recommended the following strategies to attain the integration of needs of
the individuals with the goals of the organization

1. He suggested a change in the classical formal organization structure and thus

advocated the matrix organization. Under this, superior-subordinate
relationships are removed and substituted by self discipline individuals.

2. He recommended T-group training (sensitivity training) to enhance the personal

effectiveness of individuals as well as interpersonal competence.

3. He recommended double loop learning technique which involves learning from

others rather than from one's own self perpetuality technique.

4. He recommended Job enlargement to make jobs more interesting and satisfying

5. He suggested the participative style of leadership

 Rensis Likert
•Likert’s subject of study has been the application of appropriate management strategy for
effective use of human resources in the organization.
•Thus, he is mainly concerned with managerial efficiency for achieving organizational goals.
•Likert conceptualized four different types of management systems or styles which can
depicted on a continuum. They are:

System 1: Exploitative-Authoritative:
•In the exploitative authoritative system, leaders have a low concern for people and use
methods such as threats and other fear-based methods to get their workers to conform.
•As a result of these methods, employees immediately have excellent performance upon
entering the organization

System 2: Benevolent-Authoritative:
•The benevolent authoritative system uses less control over employees than the exploitative
authoritative system, however, this system motivates employees through potential punishment
and rewards.
•Lower-level employees are more involved in the decision making processes, but are still
limited by upper management.
•Employees in this system are involved in policy-making and group problem solving.
System 3: Consultative:
• The consultative system is very closely related to the human-relations
theory.
• Subordinates gain motivation through rewards, occasional punishments,
and little involvement in making decisions and setting goals.
• When compared to the first two systems, employees have more freedom
to communicate and make company decisions

System 4: Participative:
• The participative system promotes genuine participation in decision-
making and goal setting in order to promote a workplace where all
members equally share information.
• Likert argues that the participative system is the most effective form of
management within the systems.
• Free-flowing lateral communication and the use of creativity and skills
allows workers to become more involved within the organization
 Douglas McGregor
• He propounded his theory of motivation, popularly known as Theory X
and Theory Y
• His basic hypothesis has been that, every managerial act rests on a theory
• According to him, management holds two different sets of assumptions
about human nature and human behavior in an organization
• These two diametrically opposite set of assumptions are called by him as
Theory X and Theory Y
• Theory X represents classical approach of management (authoritative
management)
• Theory Y represents behavioral approach of management (participative
management)
• Thus, theory X is work centered and theory Y is both work and people
centered
• According to him, the manager holds following assumptions
about human nature and behavior under Theory X

a. The average human being has an inherent dislike to work and

will avoid it if he can

b. Because of this characteristic of dislike to work, most people

must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with
punishment for achieving organizational objectives

c. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to

avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambitions and wants
security above all.
• In contrast to the negative views under the Theory X, McGregor listed following
positive assumptions under Theory Y

a. The average human being does not inherently dislike work. Depending upon the
controllable conditions, work may be a source of satisfaction or a source of
punishment

b. The average human being will exercise self direction and self control in the
service of objectives to which he is committed

c. Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their

achievements

d. An average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but
to seek responsibility

e. Intellectual potentialities of an average human being are utilized

f. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination and creativity in

the solution of organizational problems is widely distributed under Theory Y
 Managerial Function Theory X Theory Y
Goal Setting Subordinates have little Subordinates participate
participation in setting the in setting the
organizational goals organizational goals

Communication Unidirectional Two-way

Leadership Autocratic/Directive Democratic/Participative

Supervision Close and strict General

Control Rigid Self control

Motivation Punitive Reward Based

Appraisal Fault Finding Problem Solving

 Riggsian Models
• Comparative Public Administration(CPA) aims at the development of a more
scientific public administration by building and strengthening theory in public
administration.

• CPA stands for cross-cultural and cross national public administration

• CPA is different from traditional administration.

• Public administration is culture bound (ethnocentric) while CPA is cross cultural

in its orientation and thrust.

• Public Administration is “practitioner oriented” and involves the real world

whereas CPA attempts to the “theory building” and seeks knowledge for the sake
of knowledge.
• Fred W. Riggs is one of the pioneer thinker who contributed
significantly towards CPA.

• According to him, CPA has the following four purposes:

a. To learn the distinctive features of a particular system or cluster

of systems

b. To explain the factors responsible for cross-national and cross

cultural differences in bureaucratic behaviour

c. To examine the causes for the success or failure of particular

administrative feature in a particular ecological setting

d. To understand strategies of administrative reform

• F.W. Riggs employed three analytical tools to explain his administrative
theories. These are:

a. Ecological Approach: This approach studies the dynamics of interaction

between administrative system and its environment. Its assumes that
administrative system is one of the various sub-systems of society and is
influenced by other sub-systems and in turn, also influences them.

b. Structural-Functional Approach: He adopted structural-functional approach

in explaining the administrative systems from ecological perspective.
According to this approach, every society has various structures which
perform specific functions. Riggs identified five functions which are
performed in a society. They include political, economic, social, symbolic
and communicational functions.

c. Ideal Models: Based on structural-functional approach, Riggs constructed

two “ideal models” i.e. AGRARIA-INDUSTRIA MODEL & FUSED-
PRISMATIC-DIFFRACTED MODEL
 AGRARIA-INDUSTRIA MODEL
• Riggs developed this model in 1956.

• In this model, he distinguished between two types of

societies i.e. societies dominated by agricultural institutions
and societies dominated by industrial institutions.

• According to him, all societies move from agraria stage to

industria stage.

• This is an unidirectional movement.

 Agraria Industria

Ascriptive values Achievement values

Particularistic norms Universalistic norms

Diffuse patterns Specific patterns

Stable local groups and limited spatial High degree of social and spatial mobility
mobility

Simple & stable occupational differences Well developed occupational system

Differential stratification system Egalitarian class system

• Agraria-industria model was criticized on many points like:

a. It doesn’t help in examining the transitional societies.

b. It doesn’t provide sufficient mechanism to study mixed type

societies

c. It assumes a unidirectional movement from an agraria stage to

an industria stage

d. Its major stress is on the environment of the administrative

system but not on the administrative system per se.

e. Its too general and abstract with little resemblance to concrete

reality
 FUSED-PRISMATIC-DIFFRACTED MODEL
• This model represents the underdeveloped, developing and developed societies respectively.

• Traditional agricultural & folk societies approximate the fused model and modern industrial
societies approach to refracted model.

• The former is functionally diffuse and latter is functionally specific.

• Intermediate between these polar extremes is the prismatic model.

• Fused society is one in which a structure performs a large number of functions

• A diffracted society, on the other hand, is one in which a structure performs a limited functions.

• In between these two polar types, comes the category of prismatic society. It is a transitional
society and hence combines features of both.

• It refers to a society that is semi-differentiated, standing midway between undifferentiated

fused society and a highly differentiated society.
 Fused Prismatic Diffracted

Ascription Attainment Achievement

Particularism Selectivism Universalism

Functional diffusion Poly-functionalism Functional specificity

 PRISMATIC-SALA MODEL
• Riggs was mainly interested in analyzing the interaction between the
administrative system and its environment in prismatic societies and thus
constructed the Prismatic-Sala model in which prismatic represents
prismatic societies and sala represents administrative sub-systems of a
prismatic society

• He identified three features of prismatic sala model

a. Heterogeneity
b. Formalism
c. Overlapping

• Prismatic societies also include Nepotism, Polynormativism,

Polycommunalism etc.
 Evolution of Indian Administration
• History of Indian administration traces its earliest known
form to the monarchical system.

• The monarchical system was used in public administration

in the execution of governmental functions

• The powers of administering the states were centralized in

the hands of the king during the ancient period in India.
•
• The Mauryan period was the era of major development in
Indian Administration. a
 Kautilya's Arthashastra

• Kautilya's Arthashastra is a work on Varta ( Science Of

Economics) & Dandaniti (statecraft/Management Of
State Administration) existing in the 26 Mauryan rule.

• It was written sometime between 321 and 300 BC. It was

retrieved in 1904 AD and published in 1909 AD by R.
Shamasastry.

• It touches upon topics like functions of the chief executive,

hierarchy, bureaucracy, corruption, local administration,
supervisory management, motivation, morale and Job
description
• The most noticeable aspect of the Arthashastra is its emphasis on
Public Welfare even in an autocratic agrarian State. That is where
its timelessness lies.

• It is composed in the form of brief statements called Sutras and is

compiled in 15 books (Adhikarnas), 150 sections,180 chapters
(prakarnas), 6000 verses (sutras).

• Kautilya viewed the State as an institutional necessity for human

advancement.

• According to him the State comprises of eight elements - King,

Minister, Country, fort, treasury, army, friend and enemy.

• And State's prime function was to maintain law and order,

punishing wrong doers and protecting subjects.
• The empire was divided in to a Home Province capital territory
or administrative unit under direct control of the central
government and four to five outlying provinces (States), each
under a Governor or viceroy responsible to the central
government.

• The provinces possessed a good amount of autonomy in this

feudal-federal type of organization.

• Provinces were further divided into districts, districts into rural

and urban centres with a whole lot of officials in charge at various
levels.

• Departments to carry out execution of policy were created in all of

these divisions with specialists dominating in the Mauryan era
• Elites were preferred in job recruitment and the procedure for
appointing is the same as it is practiced today.

• A centralised data bank of all government transactions and records

were maintained in an organisation of the centre just like the
cabinet secretariat and this performed audit and inspection
functions of the three tiers of government that is local, state and
central.

• King was the head and his functions were military, judicial,
legislative and executive, similar to modern state's functions of the
President, he was to be well equipped in all areas of study
especially economics, philosophy, statecraft and the four Vedas.

• kautilya stated that whatever pleases the king only is to be avoided

and only that which pleases the people is what needs to be
followed.
• Kautilya stated that the king was like the Father and all the people or
subjects of the country or empire were his children.

• This show how he take care of them. This attitude of kautilya

conceptualized as welfare state in modern times

• Corruption was not tolerated at all and dealt with severely where the ill
earned money was confiscated

• Kautilya had his own criteria for selection of officers for the same. Once
basic qualifications were met he tested them on their attitude to piety, lucre
or revenue, fear etc.

• Those who completed this criteria of piety were appointed as judges or

magistrates and those who crossed the test of revenue became revenue
collectors, and the candidates passing the test of fear are appointed as king's
bodyguards and personal staff. And those who pass all the tests are
appointed as councilors.
• There were two courts according to the Arthashastra called the
Dharmasthya (civil cases court) where the matters are
disposed off on basis of dharma, procedural law, conventions,
royal decree; and Kantakashodhana (criminal cases court)
where accused is convicted on basis of testimony and eye
witness of spies, etc.

• Similar to today's times where there are separate courts having

the subject matter jurisdiction of civil or criminal issues.

• Agriculture was the mainstay and taxes on the goods produced

as well as its imports and exports were the source of revenue
and the expenditure focused on public administration, national
defense, army, salaries of govt. officials.
• A system of recruitment was there and job description as well.

• Salaries were clearly spelled out of ministers and government

officials.

• It also stated a view of job permanency and increment in salary or

position (promotion) if the official concerned provided
extraordinary service.

• Personnel were to be transferred from time to time as per Kautilya

because it would avoid corruption and misappropriation of
government funds.

• Removal and tenure of officials and ministers were at the pleasure

of the King just like the Governor and Attorney General, etc. hold
office at a term that specifies ' pleasure of the President'.
 Mughal Administration
• The Mughal administration was the most organized and long
lasting and has even carried on to the modern times.

• Akbar was the main architect of Mughal administrative system.

• A very detailed, reliable and brilliant account of Akbar's empire,

society and administration is given in the famous detailed
document/text by Abul Fazl titled Ain-i-Akbari (Constitution of
Akbar)

• Theirs was an Islamic state and right from the principles of

government, church policy, taxation rules, departmental
arrangements to the titles of officials all was imported wholesale
from the Person-Arab crescent of khalifs of Iran and Egypt.
• The recruitment was mainly based on caste and kin they also
did recognize merit and talent and did open up the civil
services for Hindu people.

• Source of revenue was taxation on land and agriculture and

was highly urbanized.

• In the lower levels like of politics, village and lower levels of

officials the Indian usage and customary practices were
allowed whereas at the court or darbar and in higher official
circles the foreign imported model of policy prevailed

• The sovereign was the king and had supreme authority over
everything
Mughal Administration
The Central Government:

• The principal officers of the central government were four: 1) diwan;

2) mir bakhshi; 3) mir saman; and 4) sadr

• The diwan, often called the wazir (the chief minister), was mainly
concerned with revenue and finance, but as he had a say in all matters
where any expenditure was involved, the work of other departments
also came under his control.

• All the imperial orders were first recorded in his office before being
issued, and the provincial governors, district faujdars, and leaders of
expeditions came to him for instructions before assuming their duties.

• All the earning departments were under his direct control, and could
spend only what was allotted to them by the diwan.
• The mir bakhshi performed those duties which had been the
responsibility of the ariz-i-mamalik during the earlier period.
Owing to the organization of the civil services on military
lines, his power extended far beyond the war office, and
some foreign travelers called him the lieutenant-general or
the captain-general of the realm.

• The main departure from the sultanate was in respect to work

relating to state karkhanas, stores, ordinance, and
communications, now so important that the dignitary dealing
with it, called the mir saman

• The sadr (or, more fully, sadr-i-jahan) was, as in the earlier

period, director of the religious matters, charities, and
endowments.
• Occasionally a higher dignitary, superior to the wazir
and other ministers was also appointed. He was called
the vakil, and functioned like the naib (deputy) of the
sultanate period.

• This appointment, as under the sultanate, was

sporadic, depending on the wish of the monarch and
the requirements of the situation.
•
• During the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan,
a period of ninety-seven years (1560–1657), there
were ten vakils whose terms of service totaled about
thirty-nine years
•  The splendor and stability of the Mughal rule was due to
a succession of very capable rulers who attempted to
build up an efficient administrative system, choosing
their principal officers on the basis of merit. 

• The diwan, who can perhaps be called the finance

minister, had under him two principal officers,
called diwan-i-tan and diwan-i-khalsa, who were in
charge of salaries and state lands respectively

• The organization of public services was perfected during

Akbar's reign, and was based on the mansabdari system,
borrowed originally from Persia.
• Every important officer of state held a mansab or an official
appointment of rank and emoluments, and, as members of
an imperial cadre, were liable for service anywhere in the
empire
• Akbar classified the office holders in thirty-three grades,
ranging from commanders of ten to commanders of ten
thousand.
• The principal categories of Mughal mansabdars, however,
were three:
a. those in command of ten to four hundred were commonly
styled mansabdars (officers);
b. those in command of five hundred to twenty-five hundred
were amirs (nobles);
c. and those in higher ranks belonged to the category
of umara-i-kabir or umara-i-azim (grandees)
• Originally each grade carried a definite rate of pay, out of which the
holders were required to maintain a quota of horses, elephants, and carts.
• The mansabdars were paid either in cash or by temporary grant of jagirs.
• Theoretically, the mansabdars received enormous salaries, which appear all
the more excessive when it is realized that they did not normally maintain
all the troops expected of them
•  Appointment to the ranks of mansabdars was made by the emperor,
usually on the recommendation of military leaders, provincial governors,
or court officials.
• In addition to the mansabdars, there was a class known as ahadis, who
though holding no official rank, were employed in posts in the palace.
They were usually young men of good families, who were not fortunate
enough to secure a mansab on  their first application.
• Given an opportunity to show their worth, they could then be promoted to
the ranks of mansabdars.
• These mansabdars have been compared to the Civil Service during British
rule
Provincial Administration
• The boundaries of the provincial units were more definitely
fixed; and a uniform administrative pattern, with minor
modifications to suit local conditions, was developed for all
parts of the empire. 

• The principal officer was the governor, called sipah salar, but

popularly known as subahdar 

• Next to him in official rank, but not in any way under his
control, was the provincial diwan, who was in independent
charge of the revenues of the province

• The next provincial functionary was the bakhshi, or the

paymaster. He performed a number of duties, including,
occasionally, the functions of the provincial newswriter. 
• The diwan-i-buyutat was the provincial representative of the khan-i-saman, and
looked after roads  and government buildings, supervised imperial stores, and ran
state workshops.

• The sadr and the qazi were entrusted with religious, educational, and judicial
duties.

• The faujdar and the kotwal were the two other important provincial officials.

The faujdar, who was the administrative head of the sarkar (district), was
appointed by the emperor but was under the supervision and guidance of the
governor.

• The kotwals were not provincial officers, but were appointed by the central
government in the provincial capitals and other important cities, and performed a
number of executive and ministerial duties similar to the Police Commissioners

•  The ports were in charge of the mir bahr

• The Mughals interfered very little with the local life of the village communities, for they had
no resident functionary of their own in the villages.

• The muqaddam was normally the sarpanch (head of the village panchayat, or council) and
these panchayats continued to deal with local disputes, arrange for watch and ward, and
perform many functions now entrusted to the local bodies.

Financial Administration
• The tax structure of the Mughal empire was relatively simple in its theoretical formulation,
however much it was complicated by changing needs and local circumstances. 

• Both revenue and expenditure were divided between the central and the provincial government.

• The central government reserved for itself land revenue, customs, profits from the mints,
inheritance rights, and monopolies.

• Land revenue was the most important source of income, as it has been throughout Indian
history, and more than doubled in value between the reigns of Akbar and Shah Jahan.

• The principal items of expenditure for the central government were defense, the general civil
administration of the empire (including the religious organizations), maintenance of the court
and the royal palace, and the cost of buildings and other public works. 
• The provincial sources of income were the assignments of land revenue
granted to the provincial governor and his officials as a remuneration for
their services, a variety of local taxes and cesses, transit dues and duties,
and fines and presents.

•  The Mughal revenue system was based on the division of the empire into
subas or governorships, sarkars or districts, and parganas, consisting of
number of villages

• The revenue staff had also to perform miscellaneous administrative

duties, including the keeping of the public peace, and recruitment of the
military forces. 

• The suba was modeled after the central imperial structure. The sarkar was
in the charge of the faujdar, or military commander, who combined the
functions of the modern district magistrate and superintendent of police.
The revenue work in the sarkar was looked after by the amal guzar, who
would correspond to the modern afsar-i-mal
• The levy of land revenue was based on survey
settlements calculated after a detailed
measurement and classification of the
cultivated areas.

• The nature of the crops grown and the mean

prevailing market prices were also taken into
consideration in fixing the final assessment.
This assessment system, evolved after many
experiments, became the basis of the survey
settlement of the British period.
Military Organization:
• The weakest part of Mughal administration was the military organization, precisely
the area where one might have expected the most efficient centralized control.

• But instead of a large standing army, the emperors depended upon four different
classes of troops for the maintenance of order and the defense of the empire's
borders.

a. There were, first of all, the soldiers supplied by the mansabdars; the number a
mansabdar was expected to provide upon the demand of the emperor were
specified in his warrant of appointment or were indicated by his rank.

b. Another class of troops under the command of a mansabdars was known as dakhili,
whose services were paid for by the state.

c. A third class were the ahadis, or "gentlemen troopers," drawing higher pay than
those in the ordinary service

d. Finally, the chiefs who had been permitted to retain a degree of autonomy were
required to provide contingents under their own command.
The Judiciary:
• The aim of the judicial system was primarily to
settle individual complaints and disputes rather than
to enforce a legal code, as is indicated by the fact
that the criminal court was normally known as
the diwan-i-mazalim, the court of complaints.

• The judicial courts provided by the Mughals were

principally of two types—secular and ecclesiastical. 

• The principal agency for the settlement of disputes

was the qazis' court. 
 LEGACY OF BRITISH RULE
• Indian administrative structure is largely a legacy of British rule

• The various structural and functional aspects of Indian administration like

secretariat system, all India services, recruitment, training, office
procedures, local administration, district administration, budgeting,
auditing, centralizing tendency, police administration, revenue
administration and others have roots in British rule

• British legacy in Indian administration can be understood under three

heads
a. Constitutional Developments
b. Evolution of Civil Services
c. Growth of Other Institutions
 Constitutional Developments
• Regulating Act of 1773: This was the first step taken by the
British Government to control and regulate affairs of East India
Company in India. It laid the foundation of Central
Administration in the following aspects:

a. It designated the Governor of Bengal as Governor-General of

Bengal

b. It subordinated Governors of Bombay & Madras to the

Governor-General of Bengal

c. It established Supreme Court at Calcutta as the highest court

• Pitts India Act, 1784: It placed the Indian affairs under the control of
British Government & established Board of Control

• Charter Act of 1833: It made the Governor-General of Bengal as

Governor-General of India. All civil & military powers were vested in him.

• Charter Act of 1853: It introduced a system of open competition as the

basis of recruitment for civil servants.

• Government of India Act of 1858: It transferred the government,

territories and revenues of India from the East India company to the British
Crown. The powers of crown were exercised by the Secretary of state for
India.

• Indian Councils Act of 1861: It introduced for the first time the
representative institutions in India. It thus provided that governor-generals
executive council should have some Indians as non-official representatives
members while transacting legislative business.
• Indian Councils Act of 1892: It introduced the principle of election but in
an indirect manner. It also introduced the power of discussing the budget.

• Indian Councils Act of 1909: This act is also knowns as Morely-Minto

Reforms. This act increased size of legislative councils and introduced a
system of communal representations for Muslims by accepting the
concept of “separate Electorate”. This act legalised communalism

• Government of India Act of 1919: This act is also known as Montagu-

Chelmsford reforms. It relaxed the central control over provinces by
demarcating & separating the central subjects from that of provincial
subjects. The act introduced Dyarchy system where by provincial subject
were divided into two parts – transferred and reserved. Transferred
subjects were to be discussed by the governor along with his ministers and
were responsible to the legislative council. Reserved subjects were
discussed by the governor with executive members without being
responsible to legislative council. It introduced bicameralism.
• Government of India Act of 1935: The act has following
provisions

a. Federation: The act provided for establishing an All-India

Federation consisting of provinces and princely states. The
powers were distributed between centre and units in terms of
three lists- federal list with 59 items, provincial list with 54 items
and concurrent list with 36 items

b. Provincial Autonomy: The act abolished dyarchy system and

gave autonomy to the provinces to the large extent

c. Introduced Dyarchy system at the centre

d. Introduced bicameralism in six out of eleven provinces

 Evolution of Civil Services
• The civil service system was introduced in India by the Britishers

• The efforts of Lord Warren Hastings and Lord Cornwallis led to the rise of civil services
in India

• Hasting laid foundation of Civil services and Cornwallis reformed, modernized and
rationalized it.

• Cornwallis is considered to be the Father of Civil Services in India.

• He introduced the “Covenanted Civil Services” which were different from the
“Uncovenanted Civil Services”

• In 1800, Lord Wellesly (then Governor General) established a college at Fort William in
Calcutta to provide training to the civil servants.
Macauley Committee:
• The charter Act of 1853 abolished the patronage system and introduced an
open system of competition
• Accordingly, Macauley committee was appointed in 1854, which made
following recommendations
a. An open competitive system
b. The age of candidate for admission to the tests should be 18 to 23 years
c. The competitive examination should be held in london
d. There should be a probationary period for the candidates before they are
finally appointed
e. The competitive examination should be of a high standard and should
ensure the selection of candidates with thorough knowledge
• The above recommendations were accepted and implemented by the Board
of Control.
• The first competitive examination was held in London in 1855 under the
board of control
• In 1858, conduct of competitive examination was transferred to Britsh
Civil Services Commission
•
Aitchison Commission:

• In 1886, Public service commission under the chairmanship of Charles

Aitchison was appointed to devise scheme to do full justice to the claims of
Indians to higher post.

• Aitchison made following recommendations:

A. Two tier classification of civil services should be replaced by three tier i.e.
imperial, provincial and subordinate civil services

B. The maximum age to be fixed for civil services should be fixed at 23 years

C. Certain percentage of the posts in the imperial services should be filled by

promotion of the member of provincial civil services
Islington Commission:
• Again in 1912, royal commission on public services in India under
chairmanship of Lord Islington was appointed

• The commission made following recommendations

a. Recruitment to the superior posts should be made partly inn England and
India

b. 25 per cent of superior posts should be fille by Indians by direct

recruitment and partly by promotion

c. The services under the Government of India should be classified into Class
I and II

d. There should be probation of Two Years for direct recruitment

Montford Report:

• Montague-Chelmsford made following

recommendations in 1918 towards civil services:

a. 33 percent of the superior posts should be

recruited in India and this percentage should be
increased annually by 1.5 per cent

b. The competitive examinations should be held

simultaneously in England and India
• On the basis of their recommendations, Nine All india Services
existed:

1. Indian civil services

2. Indian Police services
3. Indian Forest services
4. Indian Forest Engineering service
5. Indian services of Engineers
6. Indian civil veterinary services
7. Indian medical services
8. Indian educational services
9. Indian Agricultural services.

• The members of these services were recruited and controlled by

the Secretary of State for India.
LEE Commission:
• In 1923, the Royal Commission on superior civil services in India under the chairmanship of Lord Viscount Lee
was appointed

• The Commission made the following recommendations:

a. For effective Indianisation of Services, 20 per cent of the superior posts should be filled by promotion from the
provincial civil services.

b. Direct recruitment should be in equal proportions for Indians and Englishmen so that a ratio of 50:50 is produced
in about 15 years

c. The British officers should be allowed to retire on proportionate pensions if they are not willing to work under
Indian ministers

d. A public services commissions, as provided by the Government of India Act of 1919, should be established.

• On the recommendations of Lee Commission Central Public Service Commission was set up in 1926.

• The Government Act of India, 1935 provided for the protection of the rights and privileges of the members of civil
services.

• It also provides for the Provincial Public services Commission and Joint Pubic Services Commission for Two or
more provinces

• In 1947, there were only two all India services- Indian Civil Services and Indian Police Services . In addition, there
were various central & state services. The central services were classified into four categories- Class I, II,
subordinate and inferior services.
 Growth of Other Institutions
Central Secretariat:
• In 1843, the governor-general of India separated the secretariat
of the government of India from that government of Bengal.
Accordingly four departments, namely, home, finance,
military and foreign were set up in the central secretariat.
• In 1859, the portfolio system was introduced by Lord Canning
• In 1905, the tenure system of secretariat staffing was
introduced by Lord Curzon
• In 1905, the railway board was set up by resolution of the
government of India.
• In 1947, the departments of the government of India were
renamed as ministers. In all, there were 18 such ministers in
the central secretariat.
State Administration:

• In 1772, Lord Warren Hastings created the office of District Collector

for dual purpose of collecting revenue and dispensing justice

• In 1786, the board of revenue was created in Bengal to handle matters

of revenue administration at the state level

• In 1792, Lord Cornwallis introduced the Daroga System

• In 1829, the office of Divisional Commissioner was created by Lord

Bentick as an intermediatory authority between district and state
administration

• In 1861, the Indian Police Act made the district police subordinate to
the district magistrate.
Local Administration:

• In 1687, the first municipal corporation in India was set up in Madras

• In 1726, municipal corporations were set up in Bombay and Calcutta

• Lord Mayo’s resolution 1870 on financial decentralization visualized the

development of local self government institutions

• Lord Ripon’s resolution of 1882 was hailed as the “Magna Carta” of

local self government. He is called the father of local self government in
India

• In 1924, the cantonment act was passed by the central legislature

• Government of India Act, 1935, made local self government a provincial

subject.
Financial Administration:

• In 1753, the Indian Audit and Accounts department was created

• In 1860, a system of budget was introduced

• In 1870, financial administration was decentralized by Lord Mayo.

• In 1921, railway Budget was separated from general budget on the

recommendations of Acworth committee

• In 1921, Public Accounts committee was created at the centre

• In 1935, Reserve bank of India was established by an act of central

legislature.
 Good Governance
• Governance is a method or system of government.

• Good governance is associated with efficient and effective administration in a

democratic framework

• It is equivalent to the development oriented administration which is committed to

improvement in quality of life of the people

• The concept of new governance is not new.

• Kautilya in his book treatise Arthashastra elaborated the traits of the King of a well
governed state, thus; “in the happiness of his subject lies his happiness, in their
welfare his welfare, whatever please himself, he does not consider as good, but
whatever pleases his subjects he considers as good”

• Good governance aims at providing an environment in which all citizens irrespective

of class, caste and gender can develop to their full potential.
• Good governance also aims at providing public services
effectively, efficiently ad equitably to every citizens

• The four pillars on which the edifice of good governance rest

are:

a. Ethos (of services to the citizens)

b. Ethic (honesty, integrity and transparency)

c. Equity(treating all citizens alike with empathy for weaker

sections)

d. Efficiency (speedy and effective delivery)

• Good governance has eight attributes:

1. Accountable

2. Transparent

3. Responsive

4. Equitable and inclusive

5. Effective and efficient

6. Follows the rule of law

7. Participatory

8. Consensus oriented
• Benefits of Good governance include:

a. Enhances efficiency and effectiveness of the administration

b. Improves quality of life and living standards

c. Establishes legitimacy and credibility of institutions

d. Makes administration responsive, citizen friendly and citizen caring

e. Ensures accountability

f. Secures freedom of information and expressions

g. Reduces cost of governance

h. Makes every department result oriented

i. Improves productivity and morale of employees

j. Eradication of corruption
 Necessary Pre-Conditions for Good Governance

a. Sound legal framework

b. Robust institutional mechanism for proper

implementation of the laws and their effective
functioning

c. Competent personnel staffing and sound personnel

management policies

d. Right policies for decentralization, delegation and

accountability
 Barriers to Good Governance
a. Attitudinal problems of the civil servants

b. Lack of accountability

c. Redtapism

d. Low levels of awareness of the rights and duties of citizens

e. Ineffective implementation of laws and rules

f. Deficiencies in existing institutional structures

Impact of Liberalization on Administration
• Liberalization means free-market economy

• It marks a change from a restrictionist regime to a free regime

• It implies reducing, relaxing and dismantling governments controls

and regulations in economic activities.

• It is equated with a change in approach towards organization of

political and economic institutions and process

• The primary objective of liberalization is claimed to be the

reorientation of economies in the direction of market principles.
•The impact of liberalization on administration can be understood through following points:

1.Public services reforms

2.Reinventing Government

3.Entrepreneurial Government

4.Changing role of Bureaucracy

5.Good Governance

6.E-governance

7.Empowerment of Citizens

8.Emphasis on public management

9.Application of Public choice theory to public administration

10.
Rise of public-private partnerships

11.
Transparency of governance

12.
Citizen-friendly administration

13.
Empowerment of people at the grassroots