MTS-231

Actuating Systems
Kanwal Naveed
Example 1.1 lc
R
A
A ferromagnetic core is shown.
Three sides of this core are of
uniform width, while the fourth side
is somewhat thinner. The depth of
the core (into the page) is 10 cm,
and the other dimensions are shown
in the figure. There is a 200 turn coil
wrapped around the left side of the
core. Assuming relative permeability
µr of 2500, how much flux will be
produced by a 1A input current?

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 lc
R
A

3
4
Example 1.2

• Figure shows a ferromagnetic core whose mean path length is 40cm. There is a small gap of 0.05 cm in
the structure of the otherwise whole core. The csa of the core is 12cm2, the relative permeability of the
core is 4000, and the coil of wire on the core has 400 turns. Assume that fringing in the air gap
increases the effective csa of the gap by 5%. Given this information, find
•  
– the total reluctance of the flux path (iron plus air gap)
– the current required to produce a flux density of 0.5T in the air gap.
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Example 1.3
Home Task

Figure shows a simplified rotor and stator for a dc motor. The mean path length of
the stator is 50cm, and its CSA is 12cm2. The mean path length of the rotor is 5
cm, and its CSA also may be assumed to be 12cm2. Each air gap between the rotor
and the stator is 0.05 cm wide, and the CSA of each air gap (including fringing) is
14 cm2. The iron of the core has a relative permeability of 2000, and there are 200
turns of wire on the core. If the current in the wire is adjusted to be 1A, what will
the resulting flux density in the air gaps be? 8
Hysteresis Loop
• We know materials magnetise when expose to a magnet tend to magnatize
Hysteresis Loop
• We know materials magnetise when expose to a magnet tend to magnatize
• But some materials retain their magnetism even when the Magnetic Filed is removed
• A famous example is coil with iron core (Transformer)
• The AC source is causing the current to change its direction while
the magnet tries to retain its original magnetized direction
Thus giving rise to hysteresis.
Hysteresis Loop
 Hysteresis Loop

– HYSTERESIS is the dependence on the preceding flux history and the resulting failure
to retrace flux paths.
– Residual flux. When mmf is removed, the flux does not go to zero. This is how
permanent magnets are produced.
 Hysteresis Loop

– Coercive mmf. To force the flux to zero, an amount of mmf must be applied in the
opposite direction.
Hysteresis Loop
 Why does hysteresis occur?
– To understand hysteresis in a ferromagnetic core, we have to look into the behaviour of its
atomic structure before, during and after the presence of a magnetic field.

– The atoms of iron and similar metals tend to have their magnetic fields closely aligned with
each other. Within the metal, there is an existence of small regions known as domains where
in each domain there is a presence of a small magnetic field which randomly aligned through
the metal structure.

An example of a magnetic domain orientation in a metal structure

before the presence of a magnetic field.

A magnetic domain is a region within a magnetic material in

which the magnetization is in a uniform direction. (This means
that the individual magnetic moments of the atoms are aligned with
one another and they point in the same direction.)
Why does hysteresis occur?
• Magnetic field direction in each domain is random as such that
the net magnetic field is zero.
• When mmf is applied to the core, each magnetic field will align
with respect to the direction of the magnetic field.
– That explains the exponential increase of magnetic flux during the early stage of magnetisation.
– As more and more domain are aligned to the magnetic field, the increase in total magnetic flux will
reduce and maintain at a constant level (saturation).
• When mmf is removed, the magnetic field in each domain will try
to revert to its random state.
• However, not all magnetic field domain’s would revert to its
random state hence it remained in its previous magnetic field
position.
Why does hysteresis occur?
• Hence the material will retain some of its magnetic properties (permanent magnet) up until an
external energy is applied.

• Examples of external energy may be in the form of heat or large mechanical shock. That is why a
permanent magnet can lose its magnetism if it is dropped, hit with a hammer or heated.

•  Therefore, in an ac current situation, to realign the magnetic field in each domain during the
opposite cycle would require extra mmf (a.k.a coercive mmf).

•  This extra energy requirement is known as hysteresis loss.

•  The larger the material, the more energy is required hence the higher the hysteresis loss.

•  Area enclosed in the hysteresis loop formed by applying an ac current to the core is directly
proportional to the energy lost in a given ac cycle.
Example 1.5-Home Task
A square magnetic core has a mean path length of 55cm and
a csa of 150cm2. A 200 turn coil of wire is wrapped around
one leg of the core. The core is made of a material having the
magnetization curve shown below. Find:

•How much current is

required to produce
0.012 Wb of flux in the
core?

•What is the core’s

relative permeability at
that current level?

•What is its reluctance?

FARADAY’S LAW – Induced Voltage
Faraday's First Law
• Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field an EMF gets induced across the
conductor (called as induced emf), and if the conductor is a closed circuit then induced current
flows through it.
• Magnetic field can be varied by various methods
1. By changing magnetic flux
2. By moving the magnet
3. By rotating the coil relative to magnetic field

Faraday's Second Law

• Faraday's second law of electromagnetic induction states that, the magnitude of induced emf
is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage with the coil.

• The flux linkage is the product of number of turns and the flux associated with the coil.
FARADAY’S LAW – Induced Voltage (From a Time-Changing
Magnetic Field)
• As per Faraday’s Law, If a flux passes through a turn of a coil of
wire, voltage will be induced in the turn of the wire that is
directly proportional to the rate of change in the flux with respect
d
of time eind  
dt
d
eind  N
dt
• If there are N number of turns in the coil with the same amount
of flux flowing through it:

Note: Negative sign in above equation, is in accordance with Lenz’ Law

FARADAY’S LAW – Induced Voltage (From a Time-Changing
Magnetic Field)
Lenz’ Law
‘The direction of the voltage buildup in the coil is such that if
the coils were short circuited, it would produce current that
would cause a flux opposing the original flux change.’

 If the flux is increasing in strength, then the voltage built up in the coil will tend to establish a flux that
will oppose the increase.
 Here, the voltage on the coil must built up with the polarity required to drive the current through the
external circuit, resulting - eind.
NOTE: In Chapman, the minus sign is left out because the polarity of the resulting voltage can be
determined from physical considerations.
FARADAY’S LAW – INDUCED VOLTAGE (FROM A TIME-
CHANGING MAGNETIC FIELD)
Practical considerations

eind = -Nd /dt

• Above equation assumes that
exactly the same flux is present in
each turn of the coil.
 This is not true, since there is leakage flux.
 This equation will give valid answers if the windings are tightly coupled, so that the vast
majority of the flux passing through one turn of the coil does indeed pass through all of
them.
FARADAY’S LAW – INDUCED VOLTAGE (FROM A TIME-
CHANGING MAGNETIC FIELD)
eind = -Nd /dt
Practical considerations
• If leakage is quite high or if extreme accuracy is required then a different expression without
assumption is required.
• Now consider the induced voltage in the ith turn of the coil,
di
ei 
dt
• Since there are N turns in the coil,
N
eind   ei
i 1
N
di d  N 
    i 
i 1 dt dt  i 1 
FARADAY’S LAW – INDUCED VOLTAGE (FROM A TIME-
CHANGING MAGNETIC FIELD)
d N 
• The equation eind  can  i rewritten
dt  i 1 
 be in the form,

d
eind 
dt
where  (flux linkage) is defined as:
N
  i
(weber-turns) 
i 1
• Faraday’s law is the fundamental property of magnetic fields involved in transformer
operation.
• Lenz’s Law in transformers is used to predict the polarity of the voltages induced in transformer
windings.
Eddy Current Loss

• A time-changing flux induces voltage within a ferromagnetic core.

• These voltages cause swirls of current to flow within the core – eddy currents.
• Energy is dissipated (in the form of heat) because these eddy currents are flowing in a resistive
material (iron)
• The amount of energy lost to eddy currents is proportional to the size of the paths they follow
within the core.
• To reduce energy loss, ferromagnetic core should be broken up into small strips, or laminations,
and build the core up out of these strips.
Production of Induced Force on a Wire
A current-carrying conductor/wire present in a
uniform magnetic field of flux density B, would
produce a force on the conductor/wire. Dependent
upon the direction of the surrounding magnetic
field, the force induced is given by
F  i  l  B
where i = magnitude of current in wire
l = length of wire, in the direction of current
flow
B = magnetic flux density vector
x = cross product
Magnetic flux into the page
Production of Induced Force on a Wire
• The direction of the force is given by the
right-hand rule.

• Right-Hand Rule: If the index finger of the

right hand points in the direction of the
vector l and the middle finger points in the
direction of the vector B, then the thumb
points in the direction of resultant force on
the wire.
• The magnitude of the force is given by
Induced Voltage on a Conductor Moving in a Magnetic Field
• If a conductor moves or ‘cuts’ through a magnetic field, voltage will
be induced in it.
• The induced voltage is dependent upon the velocity of the wire
assuming that the magnetic field is constant. This can be summarised
in terms of formulation as shown:

eind = (v  B) · l
where:
v – velocity of the wire
B – magnetic field density
l – length of the wire in the
magnetic field
· – dot product
 The Linear DC Machine

• Along the bed of this "railroad track" is a constant, uniform-density magnetic field
directed into the page.
• A bar of conducting metal is lying across the tracks.
The Linear DC Machine – Four Basic Equations

1. The equation for the force on a wire in the presence of a

magnetic field:
The Linear DC Machine – Four Basic Equations

2. The equation for the voltage induced on a wire moving in a

magnetic field:
The Linear DC Machine – Four Basic Equations

3. Kirchhoff's voltage law for this machine.:

The Linear DC Machine – Four Basic Equations

4. Newton's law for the bar across the tracks

Starting the DC Machine

• To start this machine, simply close the switch.

• Now a current flows in the bar, which is given by
Kirchhoff's voltage law:
 Starting the DC Machine

• The current flows down through the bar across the tracks.
• But from Force Equation, a current flowing through a wire in the
presence of a magnetic field induces a force on the wire.
• Because of the geometry of the machine, this force is
Starting the DC Machine

• Therefore, the bar will accelerate to the right (by Newton's law).
• However, when the velocity of the bar begins to increase, an induced
voltage appears across the bar.
• The voltage is given by Equation-2, which reduces for this geometry to
Starting the DC Machine

• The induced voltage now reduces the current flowing in the bar,
since by Kirchhoff's voltage law
• As eind increases, the current i decreases
Starting the DC Machine

• The result of this action is that eventually the bar will reach a constant
steady-state speed where the net force on the bar is zero.
• This will occur when eind has risen all the way up to equal the voltage VB.
• At that time, the bar will be moving at a speed given by

The bar will continue to coast along at this no-load speed forever unless some
external force disturbs it.
Starting the DC Machine

This is precisely the

behavior observed in
real motors on
1. Closing the switch produces a current flow i = VB /R. starting.
2. The current flow produces a force on the bar given by F = ilB.
3. The bar accelerates to the right, producing an induced voltage eind as it speeds up.
4. This induced voltage reduces the current flow i = (VB - eind)/ R.
5. The induced force is thus decreased (F = ilB) until eventually
F = 0. At that point, eind = VB, i = 0, and the bar moves at a constant no-load speed vss = VB /Bl.