Module 1

By,
Akshata A Mulgund
 Bridge
• A bridge is a structure which allows passage
over an obstruction.

• The obstructions may be river, valley, rail

route or road way etc.
 Historical Evolution of Bridges
• The history of bridge engineering is closely
associated with the progress of human
civilization spread over several centuries.
• The earliest bridge on record is traced to the
lake dwellers of Switzerland who pioneered
the timber trestle construction for crossings of
rivers around 4000BC.
• The oldest bridge still standing is a pedestrian
stone slab bridge which is at least 2800 years
old but built across the Meles river in Symrna,
Turkey.
• Many of the important ancient bridges were built by
armies. As per Homer and Herodotus, the floating
bridges were made (used as floats) around 800 BC. A
bridge of this kind was built in the year 556 B.C by
King Cyrus.
• Around 320 B.C, Alexander the Great built floating
bridges for the passage of his army during his great
conquest of the east.
• India was the birth place of wooden cantilever
bridges in the Himalayas with planks of wood
anchored at the two banks using heavy stones and
the wooden planks corbelled out progressively
towards the mid stream until the gap could be
spanned by a single plank.
• The period between 200 BC. and 260 AD,
witnessed the widespread use of stone arches by
Romans using massive piers.
• After the fall of Rome, the bridge activity in
Europe was mainly promoted by the religious
orders.
• The Pont d’Avingon with 20 arch spans of about
34 m built by St.Benezet over the river Rhone in
1188 and the old London Bridge across the river
Thames with 19 Pointed arch spans of varied
length built by Peter Colechurch in 1209 belong to
this period.
• The medieval period bridges were loaded with
decorative and defensive towers, chapels,
statues, shops and dwellings.
• The Rialto Bridge in Venice, Italy built in 1591
having a single arch span of 27m is a typical
example of the many bridges built during the
Renaissance period.
• The first treatise on bridge engineering was
published in 1714 by the French Engineer,
Robert Guiter ushering the age of reason.
• The first engineering school in the world, “Te
Ecole de Ponts et Chaussees” was founded at
Paris in the year 1747 with Rodolphe
Perronet, considered as the “Father of
Modern Bridge Building” as the first director
of the school.
• Perronet perfected the art of building
masonry arched bridge by introducing slender
piers with his best work being the Pontde la
Concorde at Paris built in 1791.
• John Rennie designed the New London Bridge across the
river Thames using segmental masonry arches and the
same was completed by his son in 1831.
• In mid 19th century, demand for stronger and bigger
bridges over large rivers resulted in the use of cast iron
and wrought iron replacing timber and stone for bridges.
• The first recorded use of iron in bridges was a chain
bridge built in 1734 by the German army across the Other
River in Prussia.
• Cast iron being brittle was not found very suitable for
building large span bridges. An effective combination of
cast iron for compression members and wrought iron for
tension members was first used in trussed bridge around
1840 especially in railway bridges.
• The development of steel by Bessemer in 1856 and the
open hearth process by Sieman and martin in 1861 paved
the way for extensive use of steel and caught the
imagination of bridge builders .
• First of Forth Cantilever bridge in Scotland with two
main spans of 521 m built in 1899 and Roebling’s
Suspension bridge of 490m were a few of the famous
steel bridges of the 19th century heralding the beginning
of the modern era of bridge engineering.
• The early part of 20th century witnessed the construction
of many elegant steel bridges in America and the Europe.
The giant leap came with construction of George
Washington Bridge with a span of 1060m. The great
architect Le Corbusier exclaimed that, “The Washington
Bridge is the most Beautiful bridge in the world”.
• Post war years saw the emergence of reinforced
concrete as a suitable material for short and medium
span bridges with the added advantage of durability
against aggressive environmental conditions in
comparison with steel.
• Since the beginning of the 20 th century, the use of
reinforced concrete has become popular for both road
and railway bridges replacing steel mainly due to low
maintenance costs and durability. Reinforced concrete
bridge decks having various structural configurations
such as slab and box culverts, Tee beam and slab,
Continuous Girder, Bow string, Balanced cantilever,
Open spandrel and Rigid frame types have been
extensively used for medium to long spans.
• A revolutionary and path breaking achievement
in materials technology was witnessed in 1928
when Eugene Freyssinet, a French Engineer
introduced a new construction material
designated as “ Prestressed Concrete”. In 1950,
prestressed concrete came to be used mostly
for bridges of ever increasing spans coupled
with rapidity and ease of construction and
competing in costs with other alternative types
like steel and reinforced concrete.
• Among the 500 bridges built in Germany during 1949-53,
seventy percent of them used prestressed concrete.
• The construction of three prestressed concrete railway
bridges with spans ranging from 12.8m to 19.2m on the
Assam rail link in 1950 heralded the use of prestressing in
bridge construction in India.
• The Bendorf Bridge over the river Rhine in Germany with
a main span of 208 m built in 1965 by Finsterwalder using
free cantilever method of construction is considered as a
breakthrough in prestressed concrete bridge
construction.
• The Ganga Bridge at Patna with 45 spans of 121 m each is
the longest prestressed concrete bridge in Asia extending
over 5.575 Km built by using precast single cell segmental
box girders of variable depth prestressed to form
continuous spans.
• Innovative efforts to reduce the depth of girders of
large span bridges resulted in the development of
cable stayed bridges in which the deck system is
suspended by inclined steel cables which in turn
transmit the forces through a massive tower or
pylon to the foundations.
• The first modern cable stayed bridge built in
Sweeden was the Stromsund bridge designed by
Dischinger and constructed in the year 1955.
• Subsequently more than 300 cable stayed bridges
have been built throughout the world with steel,
reinforced and prestressed concrete decks covering
spans from 100 to 1800 m.
• The development of bridge engineering from
timber trestles and stone arches during the
ancient period to modern cable stayed bridges
of the 20th century sums up the historical
evolution of bridges with the development of
civilization.
• Notable examples of the development of
various types of bridges are presented in the
following sections.
 Classification of Bridges
• Timber and Stone Masonry Bridges :
• Wooden bridges were built over the river
Eupharetes during the reign of queen of
Babylon in Iraq during 783 B.C .
• This bridge according to the legend was used by
the ancient Greek epic poet Homer.
• Raina cites examples of early timber beam and
crude suspension bridges built over Min river in
China and the Himalayas.
• The chinese were building stone arch bridges
since 250 B.C.
• The Chao-Chow Bridge built around 600 AD. Is
perhaps the most long lived vehicular bridge
today.
• This stone masonry bridge with a single span of
37.6m and a central rise of 7.2m with a roadway
of 9m situated about 350km south of Bejing. The
secret of its longevity is attributed to the
accurately dressed and matching voussoirs
without any mortar in the joints.
• Notable examples of a series of stone masonry
arched bridges across the river Seine in Paris
shown are unique examples of human
Ingenuity.

• The proven durability of material and the long

experience in intuitive proportioning made stone
masonry arched bridges the most popular form
of construction in the early days of Railways until
Iron and steel bridges made their way in the 17th
century.
 Iron and Steel Bridges
• The first iron bridge comprising of five
semicircular arch ribs in iron joined together
side by side to form a single arch span of 30 m
was built at Coalbrookdale in 1779 over the
Severen in England by Abraham Darby and
John Wilkinson.
• The Menai strait bridge which is a suspension
bridge having a record breaking span of 177m
using wrought iron chains was built by Thomas
Telford in Wales around 1826.
• The first iron railway bridge was built by
George Stephenson in 1823 on the Stockton-
Darlington railway.
• Gradually wrought iron replaced cast iron in
ridge construction during the period from
1840 to 1890.
• Many railway bridges using various types of
trusses like Pratt, Whipple, Howe,Fink and
Warren were used during this period.
• The development of steel by Bessemer in 1856
paved the way for extensive use of steel in road
and railway bridges.
• The first steel bridge was built at Glasgow, South
Dakota in 1878.
• Steel was also used in the cables and spans of the
famous Brooklyn Bridge during 1869-83.
• The world’s longest span steel cantilever bridge
was built at Qubec over the St. Lawrence river
having a main span of 549m in span of 457m is
aesthetically elegant and possesses pleasing
proportions among the suspended span,
cantilever arms and the anchor spans.
• The increased availability of steel, the earlier
truss forms yielded to more efficient types such
as the Baltimore, Pennsylvania and K – truss
widely adopted for railway bridges.
• In India, many major bridges were built using
steel decks in the late 19th century and early
20th century for railway tracks across the major
rivers.
• The upper Railway Bridge built in 1899
consisting of 93 spans of approximately 30 m
each extending over a length of 3.1 km is an
excellent example of such a bridge.
• The world’s longest simple steel truss bridge span
is the suspended span of J.J.Barry Bridge across
Delaware River in U.S.A. having a span of 251m.
• In the early 20 th century many steel arched
bridges which were aesthetically pleasing were
built, the prominent among them being the Henry
Hudson bridge built in 1936 with a span of 244 m
and the Rainbow bridge at Niagara falls built in
1941 with a span of 290 m.
• The World’s longest arch bridge is the New River
George Bridge in West Virginia built in 1976 using
weathering steel with a span of 519 m.
• Amman considered as the foremost bridge
engineer in the world during the 20th century
built Verranzo Narrows Bridge spanning 1300 m
in New York which is considered as a master
piece in bridge construction and opened for
traffic in 1964 just a few months before he died.
• After the failure of the Tacoma Narrows bridge
in the state of Washington in 1940, due to
aerodynamic instability, bridge engineers
realized the importance of stiffening the decks of
suspension bridges.
• Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge built with a
deck thickness of 2.4 m extending over a span
of 850 m was the most slender bridge with a
span/depth ratio of 350.
• The Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco
having a central span of 1280 m extends over a
total length of 2738m.
• The towers soar over a height of 227 m up into
the sky and the diameter of each of the two
cables is 924 mm containing 27572 galvanized
steel wires.
• The slender deck has been strengthened by 10
to 12 m deep stiffening trusses to safeguard
against aerodynamic instability after the
famous collapse of the Tacoma Narrows
Bridge.
 Reinforced Concrete Bridges
• The first reinforced concrete bridge was built
by Adair in 1871 across the Waveney in
England spanning 15m.
• The adaptability of reinforced concrete in
architectural form was demonstrated by
Mailart in Switzerland in building arched
bridges using reinforced concrete, utilizing the
integrated structural action of thin arch slabs
with monolithically cast stiffening beams.
• Salginatobel and schwanabach bridges built
by Mailart in 1930 and 1933 respectively are
classical examples of aesthetically beautiful
and efficient use of materials coupled with
economy in bridge construction.
• Reinforced concrete was preferred to steel as
a suitable material for short and medium span
bridges mainly due to the added advantage of
durability against aggressive environmental
conditions in comparison with steel.
• Reinforced concrete bridges with different types
of decks have been widely used for both road
and railway bridges.
• The most common type is the slab deck used for
short spans such as culverts.
• For medium spans in the range of 10 to 20 m, Tee
beam and slab deck is widely used for road
bridges in the span range of 25 to 35 m.
• Continuous bridge decks with longitudinal girders
of varying depth are found to be more
economical in the span range of 20 to 40 m.
• Elegant arch bridges were built during the period
from 1920 to 1950.
• The Dum Dum Bridge at Kolkata built in 1926
with two arches of 24 m span is the first major
reinforced concrete arch bridge in India.
• The Teesta Coronation Bridge built in 1941 across
Teesta river in West Bengal is an excellent
example of reinforced concrete Open Spandrel
Bridge with a main span of 81.71 m and a central
rise of 39.6 m.
• In the case yielding soils where minor settlements
are expected, Balanced cantilever bridges are
preferred.
 Prestressed Concrete Bridges
• A revolutionary and a path breaking
achievement in materials technology was
witnessed in 1928 when Eugene Freyssinet, a
French engineer introduced a new
construction material designated as
‘Prestressed concrete”, which is ideally suited
for construction of long span bridges.
• The big boom in prestressed concrete was
witnessed after the Second World War.
• In 1950’s , prestressed concrete came to be used mostly
for bridges of ever increasing spans coupled with rapidity
and ease of construction and competing in costs with
other alternative types like steel and reinforced concrete.
• Among the 500 and odd bridges built in post war
Germany during 1949-53, 70 % of them used prestressed
concrete.
• The use of prestressed concrete in bridges started in India
in 1948 when three railway bridges of spans ranging from
12.8 m to 19.2 m were constructed in the Assam Rail
link.
• The first prestressed concrete highway bridge built in
India is the Palar Bridge near Chinglepet, built in 1954
with 23 spans of 27 m each.
• Since then, many prestressed concrete bridges
have been successfully built in this country
using innovative designs and construction
techniques.
• In 1949 prestressed concrete was introduced
in U.S.A. in the construction of Magnel’s
Walnut Bridge.
• Notable examples of prestressed concrete
bridges include the Lubha bridge in Assam .
• And the Ganga bridge at Patna considered as
the longest bridge extending over 5575 m.
• The Bendorf Bridge over the Rhine in Germany with
a main span of 208 m, the Hamana Bridge in Japan
with a 240 m main span and the Boussen’s Bridge in
France are excellent examples of free cantilever
technique of construction developed by
Finsterwalder.
• At present the cantilever construction method is
invariably used for long span prestressed concrete
bridges mainly for quality control and rapidity of
construction.
• During the last decade hundreds of fly overs built in
the metropolitan cities of India have adopted the
cantilever construction technique with minimal
disruption of traffic.
 Cable Stayed Bridges
• A revolutionary approach to bridge design and
construction first conceived by the German
Engineer Dischinger in 1938 and later put into
practice in the construction of first modern cable
stayed bridge is the Stromsund Bridge in
Sweeden around 1953.
• This innovation paved the way for the
construction of number of famous Rhine family
cable stayed bridges with spans upto and
exceeding 300m.
• According to Leonhardt, cable stayed bridges are
technically, economically, aesthetically and
aerodynamically superior to the classical suspension
bridges for spans in the range of 700 to 1500 m.
• The combination of cable stays with cellular box girder
prestressed concrete decks have significantly
extended the span range of highway bridges.
• India’s first cable stayed bridge is the Akkar bridge in
Sikkim completed in 1988 and extending over a length
of 157 m with a single pylon of height 57.5m,
Vidyasagar sethu at kolkata is an excellent example of
a cable stayed three lane highway bridge comprising a
main span of 457 m and two side spans of 183m.
• Normandie cable stayed bridge in France built
using concrete and steel spans over 624 m.
• The Tatara bridge located on the Onomichi –
Imabari highway route of the Honshu – Shikoku
Bridge project in Japan has a main span of 890
m with Y – shaped tower rising 176 m above the
bridge deck.
• At present the longest span cable stayed bridge
in the world is the Messina Straights Bridge in
Italy having a main span of 1800 m.
 Modern Trends in Bridge Engineering
• Rapid Developments and innovations in the field
of concrete technology indicates that it is possible
to produce Ultra high strength concrete with a
compressive strength exceeding 100N/mm^2 and
high tensile steel cables of superior quality and
strength required for new types of prestressed
concrete and cable stayed bridges.
• Innovations in construction techniques coupled
with rapid advances in the design philosophy of
complex bridge forms has paved the way for use
of longer spans and slender decks in bridges.
• The evolution of long span cable stayed bridges
with hybrid decks using steel girders, concrete
slabs and high tensile steel cables is increasingly
noticeable with the dawn of 21st century .
• The cantilever method of construction is the
latest and more economical and popular
method generally adopted for the construction
of long span precast or cast in-situ prestressed
concrete segmental bridges. This method is also
ideally suited for the construction of cable
stayed bridges.
• The Second Vivekananda Prestressed concrete cable
stayed bridge across the river Hooghly just North of
Kolkata is an excellent example of an extradosed bridge
comprising a hybrid structure with elements of cable
stayed, post tensioned prestressed concrete box girders.
• The nine span extradosed bridge is considered as Asia’s
first multispan extradosed bridge and one of only three
extradosed bridges in Asia outside Japan, according to
Egeman Ayna, principal engineer of the International
Bridge Technologies (IBT) who are the design consultants
for the bridge project.
• The modern bridge extending over total length of 880 m
comprises of seven spans of 110 m and two 55 m long
spans.
• The extradosed bridge deck box girders of constant
depth are only 2.5 m deep and are supported by a single
plane of 8 stay cables of the Harp type located on the
central median.
• At present the tallest and the longest cable stayed bridge
is located outside the french town of Millau and France
happens to be the homeland of Eugene Freyssinet, the
innovator of Prestressed Concrete.
• The cable stayed bridge extending over a length of 246
km is considered as an engineering feat since some of the
bridge pillars rise gracefully to a height more than 300 m.
• The bridge designed by the famous British architect Sir
Norman Foster is currently the World’s tallest and the
longest cable stayed bridge.
• A critical survey of long span bridges
constructed in various countries during the
last two decades indicates that the modern
trend is to adopt prestressed concrete cellular
box girder decks for urban flyovers and
• Cable stayed bridge decks for long spans
since they are economical, structurally and
aerodynamically efficient and aesthetically
superior in comparison with other types of
bridges.
 Classification
• There are various types of bridges classified
based on :

• Span,
• Materials,
• Types of bridge structures,
• Functions,
• Utility and
• Position etc.
 Types of Bridges based on Type of Super
Structure

• Arch bridge
• Girder bridge
• Truss bridge
• Suspension bridge
 Arch Bridge
• Arch bridge is a curve shaped bridge, in which
horizontal thrust is developed and is restrained
by the abutments at each end of the bridge.
• There are many types of arch bridges. In some
cases, the arch may be under the deck slab also.
 Girder Bridge

• In case of Girder Bridge, the deck slab is

supported by means of girders.
• The girder may be of rolled steel girder or
plate girder or box girder.
• Load coming from the deck are taken by
girder and transferred them to the piers and
abutments.
 Truss Bridge

• Truss is member consisting connected

elements to form triangular units.
• In case of truss bridge the super structure is
provided with trusses.
• Generally, trusses are made of steel. Several
types of trusses are available.
 Suspension Bridge

• In case of Suspension bridge, deck slab is

suspended with the help of cables and
suspenders.
• These will give good appearance. For long span
bridges, this type of suspension is suitable.
 Types of Bridges based on Materials

• Timber bridge
• Masonry bridge
• Steel bridge
• R.C.C bridge
• Pre stressed concrete bridge
 Timber Bridge

• Bridges constructed using timber are called

timber bridges.
• These are generally constructed for short spans
or as temporary bridges. They are not useful for
heavy loads.
 Masonry Bridge

• Masonry Bridge constructed by using bricks

or stones.
• These are generally constructed for short
spans and in low depth canals.
 Steel Bridge
• Steel bridges are constructed using steel bars
or trusses or steel cables.
• These are more durable and bear heavy
loads.
 R.C.C Bridge
• R.C.C bridges are constructed using reinforced
cement concrete.
• These are more stable and durable. They can
bear heavy loads and are widely used nowadays.
 Prestressed Concrete Bridge

• If concrete material is placed under compression

before applying the loads, then it is called as
prestressed concrete.
• To construct pre stressed concrete bridge, pre-
stressed concrete blocks are arranged as deck slab
with the help of girders.
• These blocks are suitable for shorter span to longer
span bridges.
 Types of Bridges based on Span

• Culvert bridge
• Minor bridge
• Major bridge
• Long span bridge
 Culvert Bridge
• When the bridge span length is below 6
meters then it is called as Culvert Bridge.
 Minor Bridge

• If the bridge span length is in between 8 to 30

meters, then it is called minor bridge.
 Major Bridge

• For major bridge, the span is generally about

30 to 120 meters.
 Long Span Bridge
• When the span of bridge is more than 120
meters then it is termed as long span bridge.
 Types of Bridges based on Level of Crossing

• Over bridge
• Under bridge
 Over Bridge
• To pass over another route (railway or
highway), a bridge is constructed to allow
traffic.
• This is called over bridge or fly over bridge.
 Under Bridge

• If over bridge is not possible, an underground

type bridge is constructed to pass another
route. This is called under bridge.
 Types of Bridges based on Function

• Foot bridge
• Highway bridge
• Railway bridge
• Aqueduct bridge
• Road come railway bridge
 Foot Bridge
• Foot Bridge is generally constructed for
humans to cross the roads or rail route or any
canal by foot.
• Vehicles are not allowed in this bridge.
 Highway Bridge
• High way or road Way Bridge is used for road
transportation. These are constructed over
rivers or another routes to allow road way
traffic. Girder type bridges are used as
highway bridges over rivers or canals.
 Railway Bridge

• Rail bridges are constructed for rail

transportation. Truss type bridges are
preferred for railways but how ever R.C.C
bridges are also used.
 Aqueduct Bridge

• Aqueduct bridges are nothing but water

carrying bridges which are constructed to
transport water from source to system.
 Road cum Railway Bridge

• This type of bridge is useful for both road way

and railway transport. It may be of one floor
or two floors. If one floor is there then, rail
and road way are arranged side by side.
Otherwise roadway on top deck and railway in
bottom deck is preferred.
Types of Bridges based on Inter Span Relation

• Simple bridge
• Continuous bridge
• Cantilever bridge
 Simple Bridge

• Simple bridge is like simply supported beam

type which consist two supports at its ends.
For shorter spans, simple bridges are suitable.
 Continuous Bridge

• If the bridge span is very long, then we have to

build more supports in between end supports.
This type of bridge is termed as continuous
bridge.
 Cantilever Bridge

• Cantilever type of bridge have only supported

at one end and another end is free to space.
Generally, two cantilever portions are joined
to make way to the vehicles or humans.
 Types of Bridges based on Utility

• Temporary bridge
• Permanent bridge
 Temporary Bridge

• During construction of dams or bridges or

during floods, temporary bridges are
constructed at low cost for temporary usage.
These bridges are maintained at low cost.
After construction of original structure
temporary bridges are dismantled. Generally
timber is used to construct temporary bridges.
 Permanent Bridge

• These bridges are constructed for long term

use and maintained at high level. Steel or
R.C.C bridges are come under this category.
 Types of Bridges based on Position of Floor

• Deck bridge
• Through bridge
• Semi-through bridge
 Deck Bridge

• In case of Deck Bridge, super structure or floor

of bridge is positioned in between the high flood
level and formation level.
 Through Bridge
• In case of through bridge, Super structure of
bridge is completely above the formation
level.
 Semi-Through Bridge
• If the super structure of bridge is partly above
and partly below the formation level, then it is
called as semi-through bridge.
 Types of Bridges based on High Flood Level (HFL)

• Low level bridge

• High level bridge
 Low Level Bridge

• The super structure of bridge is generally

below high flood level. So, whenever floods
occurred these are submersed in water. So,
these are also called as submersible bridges.
These are generally constructed for
unimportant routes with low cost.
 High Level Bridge

• High level bridge is non submersible against

floods. It is well above the high flood level and
constructed in important routes.
 Design loads for bridges
• Dead Load :
• The dead load on a super structure is the
aggregate weight of all superstructure elements
(elements above bearings) such as the deck,
wearing coat, railings, parapets, and utilities.
• It will be seen in the design that the first step is
to calculate the dead load of all the elements.
 Vehicle Live Load

• The term live load means a load that moves along

the length of the span.
• By this definition , a man walking on the bridge is
also a live load , but a highway bridge is designed
to withstand much more than pedestrian loading.
• To give the designers the ability to accurately
model the live load on a structure , hypothetical
vehicles were evolved by IRC ,in 1946.
• The loads are categorised based on their
configuration and intensity.
 Indian Road Congress Bridge Loading Standards

• Highway bridge decks have to be designed to

withstand the live loads specified by the Indian
Road Congress.
• The different categories of loadings were first
formulated in 1958 and they have not changed in
the subsequent revisions of 1964, 1966 and
2000.
• The standard IRC loads specified in IRC: 6 – 2014
are grouped under four categories as detailed
below:
 IRC Class AA Loading
• Two different types of vehicles are specified
under this category grouped as tracked (self
propelled vehicle that moves on tracks) and
wheeled vehicles (having wheels to enable it to
move over the ground).
• The IRC Class AA tracked vehicle (simulating
((to do or make something that looks real but is
not real)) an army tank) of 700 kN, and
• a Wheeled vehicle (heavy duty army truck) of
400 kN, are shown in fig
• All the bridges located on National Highways
and State highways have to be designed for
this heavy loading.
• These loadings are also adopted for bridges
located within certain specified muncipal
localities and along specified highways.
• Alternatively, another type of loading
designated as Class 70 R is specified instead of
Class AA loading.
 IRC Class 70 R Loading
• IRC 70 R loading consists of the following three
types of vehicles:
• A)Tracked vehicle of total load 700 kN, with two
tracks each weighing 350kN.
• B) Wheeled vehicle comprising 4 wheels, each
with a load of 100 kN totalling 400 kN.
• C) Wheeled vehicle with a train of vehicles on
seven axles with a total load of 1000 kN.
• The tracked vehicle is somewhat similar to that
of Class AA, except that the contact length of
the track is 4.87m, the nose to tail length of the
vehicle is 7.92 m and the specified minimum
spacing between successive vehicles is 30 m.
• The wheeled vehicle is 15.22 m long and has
seven axles with the loads totaling to 1000 kN.
• The bogie axle type loading with 4 wheels
totaling 400 kN, is also specified.
• The details of IRC Class 70 R loading vehicles
are shown in fig :
• The 700 kN, tracked vehicle is common to
both the classes , the only difference being the
loaded length which is slightly more for the
Class 70 R.

• The second category is the wheeled type

comprising 1000kN train of vehicles on seven
axles for the Class 70 R and a 400 kN bogie
axle type vehicle for the Class AA.
• The class AA loading is a 554 kN train of
wheeled vehicles on eight axles.
• Impact is to be allowed for all the loadings as
per the specified formulae which is different for
steel and concrete bridges.
• The various categories of loads are to be
separately considered and the worst effect has
to be considered in design.
• Only one lane of class 70 R or Class AA load is
considered whereas both the lanes are assumed
to be occupied by Class A Loading if that gives
the worst effect.
 IRC Class A Loading
• IRS Class A type loading consists of a wheel
load train comprising a truck with trailers of
specified axle spacing and loads as shown in
fig.
• The heavy duty truck with two trailers
transmits loads from 8 axles varying from a
minimum of 27 kN, to a maximum of 114kN,
• The class A loading is a 554 kN, train of
wheeled vehicles on eight axles.
• Impact has to be allowed as per the formulae
recommended in the IRC:6-2000.
• The impact factor is inversely proportional to
the length of the span and is different for
steel and concrete bridges.
• This type of loading is recommended for all
roads on which permanent bridges and
culverts are constructed.
 IRC Class B Loading
• Class B type of loading is similar to Class A loading
except that the axle loads are comparatively of
lesser magnitude.
• The axle loads of Class B are a 332 kN train of
wheeled vehicles on eight axles as shown in fig.
• This type of loading is adopted for temporary
structures and timber bridges.
• Combinations of different types of live loads are
recommended for the design of bridges in clause
204.3 of IRC : 6-2014.
• The carriageway live load combination
recommended for design is compiled in Table.
• The IRC Code also provides for the reduction of
the longitudinal effects on bridges
accommodating more than two traffic lanes due
to the low probability of all lanes not subjected
to the characteristic loads simultaneously .
• The reduction in longitudinal effect
recommended is 10 percent for three lanes and
20 percent for four lanes or more.
• However, it should be ensured that the reduced
longitudinal effects are not less severe than the
longitudinal effect resulting from simultaneous
load on two adjacent lanes.
 Impact Factors
• Impact factors are generally applied to the moving
wheel or distributed loads to enhance their magnitude
to include their dynamic effects on the bridge deck.
• The impact allowance is generally expressed as a
fraction of the applied live load and is expressed as an
empirical expression involving constants and the span
length of the bridge deck.
• The impact factor is always inversely proportional to
the length of the span and is different for reinforced
concrete and steel bridges.
• The impact factors to be considered for different types
of live loads of various countries are as follows:
 Indian Standard Loadings
• A) IRC Class A Loading:
• The impact allowance is expressed as a fraction of the
applied load and is computed by the expression.
• I=A/(B+L)
• Where,
• I =Impact factor fraction
• A =Constant having the value of 4.5 for reinforced
concrete bridges and 9.0 for steel bridges.
• B = constant having a value of 6.0 for reinforced
concrete bridges and 13.5 for steel bridges.
• L= Span in meters
• For spans less than 3m, the impact factor is
0.5 for R.C. Bridges and 0.545 for steel
bridges.
• When the span exceeds 45m, the impact
factor is taken as 0.088 for R. C. bridges and
0.154 for steel bridges.
• The impact percentages for highway bridges
can also be directly obtained from the curves
of IRC code given in fig
 IRC Class AA or 70R loadings
• For spans less than 9 m
i) for tracked vehicle – 25% of the span upto 5m
linearly reduced to 10% for span of 9m.
ii) for wheeled vehicle –25%
For spans of 9 m and more
For tracked vehicle - for R C Bridges, 10% upto a
span of 40 m and in accordance with fig for spans
exceeding 40 m.
• For steel bridges, 25% for spans upto 23 m and as
per fig for spans exceeding 23m
 Computation of Peak Flood Flow

• Predicting peak discharge rates or synthesizing

complete discharge hydrographs for use in the
design of minor and major bridge structures are
two of the more challenging aspects of bridge
hydrology.
• Generally, a hydrologist is required to provide
peak rates of discharge and stages at a design
frequency, or synthesize a complete discharge
hydrograph for a design storm.
• Hydrologic design aspects of a complete
bridge structure are considerably more
complex than those of a small bridge or
culvert.
• The economic selection of waterway ( a river ,
a canal, or other body of water serving as a
route or way of travel or transport) from
various possibilities dictates the final design
and is a function of the degree of protection
to be provided, project economy, agency
policy and construction standards.
 Empirical Methods
• The Empirical Formulae for prediction of peak discharges are
employed only when sufficient data are not available for
detailed and precise analysis of catchment response.
• One of the drawbacks of these empirical methods is that
each formula is applicable only to the catchment for which
it is developed.
• The general form of the empirical equation is
• Q = Can
Where
• Q= Peak Discharge
• A = Area of the catchment
• C and n are constants, which absorbs storm and catchment
characteristics .
 Dicken’s Formula
• Dicken for the first time in 1885 made an attempt and
derived a formula of the following form to predict the
maximum flood on the basis of the studies conducted on
Indian rivers, for determining waterway for bridges.
• Q=CA3/4
• The above formula is applicable to catchments (the action of
collecting water, especially the collection of rainfall over a
natural drainage area.) in Central and North India.
• The constant C varies from 2.80 to 5.6 for plain catchments
and from 14 to 28 for mountainous regions.
• From the recent studies conducted to make Dicken’s
formula applicable to different parts of India, the constants
are listed in Table.
 Ali Nawaz Jung Bahadur’s formula
• This formula involves a logarithmic function of
areas as the exponent.
• Jung Bahadur was of the opinion that the formula
to be applied should be simple but rational
without involving much of the judgement on the
part of the hydrologist selecting the coefficient.
• Q= C(0.368A)(0.925 – log0.368A/14)
• The value of C is 49 to 60 for regions in South and
North India respectively.
 Ryve’s Formula
• Ryve modified the Dicken’s formula for
application to catchments in southern regions of
India.
• The modified formula is
• Q=CA2/3
• Where
• A = area of the catchment in sq.km
• C = 6.74 for areas upto 24 km from the coast
= 8.45 for areas 24-161 km from the coast
= 10.1 for hilly areas.
• The modified Ryve’s formula can also be
written as
• Q = CA2/3 – C1A12/3
• Where
• C1= modified Ryve’s constant which varies
from 1/3 to 1/5 of C
• A= combined area of the catchment in sq.km
• A1= intercepted area (Obstruct) of the
catchment in sq.km
 Inglis Formula

• Inglis studied the available hydrologic records of

catchments of erstwhile state of Bombay and of
a few catchments outside the state to arrive at a
simple relationship as follows:
• Q= 124A/√A-10.24
• This formula is applicable to regions in
Maharashtra and Deccan Plateau.
 Envelope curves
• For developing envelope curves, the maximum flood
discharges and the respective areas of the drainage
basin possessing similar hydrometerologic
characteristics are compiled.
• The maximum flood discharges versus the drainage
areas are plotted on the log – log scale and a smooth
curve known as the envelope curve is fitted to pass
through the plotted points: by using this curve, the
maximum flood discharge can be estimated for a
given drainage basin.
• Envelope curves for Indian rivers developed by
Kanwar Sain and Karpov are shown in fig.
 Determination of Peak Discharge
• During floods , because of high stages and swift currents, it is
not possible to measure the discharges in river channels. The
peak flow discharge can be estimated by an indirect method,
with the aid of open channel flow formulae, called the slope –
area method.
• For application of the slope – area method, the following data
are needed :
• 1. The length of the reach.
• 2. The difference in water surface elevations through the
reach (the fall).
• 3. The flow area, the wetted perimeter of the cross – section,
and the velocity head coefficients at upstream and
downstream sections.
• 4. The average value of Manning coefficient n for the reach.
 Selection of Reach
• The following guidelines are prescribed for selection
of a suitable reach:
• 1. The high flood level mark should be easily
recognisable.
• 2. For accurate measurement of the fall, the length of
the reach should be sufficiently long.
• 3. The reach should be relatively straight and stable.
• 4. The converging reach is preferred over a diverging
one.
• 5. Bridges, channel bends, waterfalls and other
features causing non – uniformity of flow should be
avoided.
• An ideal site should satisfy one or more of the
following criteria to improve the accuracy of
measurement:
• 1. The ratio of the length of the reach to
hydraulic depth should be greater than 75.
• 2. The fall should be more than or equal to
0.15 m.
• 3. The fall should be greater than either of the
velocity heads computed at upstream and
downstream sections.
 Linear Waterways
• Streams with Rigid Boundaries:
• When the banks and the beds of a stream are
very rigid, the waterway of the bridge should be
made equal to the width of the water surface
measured from edge to edge along the design
high flood level on the plotted section.
• However , a certain reduction in the waterway
may be possible provided the velocity under the
bridge is not severe thus resulting in tangible
savings in the cost of construction of the bridge.
 Quasi Alluvial Streams

• In this type of rivers , the waterway should be

made equal to the width of the water surface
measured from edge to edge along the design
high flood level.
 Alluvial Streams
• The linear waterway of a bridge across a fully
alluvial stream should be kept equal to the
regime width as given by Lacey.
• For regime conditions, Lacey arrived at the
following equations :

• Regime Cross – section

PP = 4.8Q0.5
• The following guidelines for fixing linear
waterways across alluvial streams are
recommended:
• 1. In alluvial rivers meandering over a wide belt,
it normally costs less to confine the waterway
opening and make the crossing in a combination
of embankments than to bridge the full width of
the flood pain.
• A cost comparison of such construction is
produced in Table 3.4
2. The linear waterway should not be more than
the regime width. As the regime depth is not a
function of the regime width (Eq3.19), an
increase in the span of the bridge will not allow
reductions in the depth of foundation.
3. The linear waterway, should not be less than the
regime width. The cost of savings effected by a
decrease in waterway openings will be offset by
increased costs of foundations and training
works.
 Sand Gravel and Cohesive Soil Beds
• A trial linear waterway for a sand and gravel bed
may be calculated from eqns respectively.
• For cohesive soils, the maximum depth measured at
the given channel section is substituted in eqn 3.12
and a trial discharge per unit width is obtained,
then by dividing the design flow by the discharge
per unit width, a trial linear waterway is computed.
• The total span of the bridge may be obtained from
the water width by making due allowance for the
obstruction to flow by piers, abutments and the
skew of the bridge.
 Economic Span
• Economic span is one for which the total cost of the
bridge is minimum. For the most economical span,
the cost of the superstructure equals the cost of the
substructure, with the following assumptions:
• 1. The cost of the superstructure is proportional to
the square of the span.
• 2. The spans are of equal length.
• 3. The cost of each abutment is the same.
• 4. The cost of each pier is the same.
• 5. The cost of railings , parapet, approach is constant.
 Afflux
• It is rarely feasible, economically to bridge the
river in one span.
• Normally , piers are located within the main flow
channel and embankments encroach into the
flood plain.
• These obstruct the flow and cause the upstream
water level to rise above the free discharge level.
• This heading up of water on the upstream water
level to rise above the free discharge level.
(Afflux).
• This heading up of water on the upstream side of
the bridge is known as afflux.
• It is one of the important parameters required to
fix the various levels for the bridge.
• The velocity of flow under the bridge is also
governed by afflux .
• The vertical clearance and freeboard are
influenced by afflux as well.
• The vertical clearance is the difference
between the high flood level (HFL) and the
lowest point on the superstructure.

• The freeboard is the difference between the

highest flood level, after allowing for afflux if
any, and the formation level of the
communication route or the top level of
guide banks.
 Scour
• Scour occurs , during the passage of high
discharge, when the velocity of the stream
exceeds the limiting velocity that can be
withstood by the particles of the bed
materials.
• In the design of piers , abutments , training
works, etc. for bridges across rivers , the
assessment of amount of scour adjacent to
the structures needs a careful consideration :
In order to understand the mechanism of
scour , the rivers can be classified as follows:
 Streams with rigid boundaries
• Streams whose both banks and the bed are
very rigid are known as stream with rigid
boundaries.
 Quasi – alluvial streams
• Streams flowing between the banks which
are made up of rigid rock or mixture of sand
and clay , whereas the bed material Is
composed of “loose granular material which
can be picked up by the current and
transported, are known as quasi – alluvial
streams.
• Quasi – alluvial streams never attain the
regime condition. (being partly or almost)
 Alluvial Streams
• Streams flowing between erodible banks and
having erodible beds are known as alluvial
streams.
 Alluvial streams

• Regime condition of alluvial streams

• The regime or equilibrium condition may be

defined as a stable channel whose
geometrical dimensions width , depth and
bed slope ) have undergone modifications by
silting and scouring as well as have attained
an equilibrium state.
 Normal scour depth for alluvial streams
• The depth of the stream measured at the
middle of the channel, when it is in the regime
condition, is known a the normal scour depth.
• To attain normal scour depth, a constant
discharge should pass through a straight stable
reach of an alluvial stream for an indefinite time.
• Under such conditions, according to Lacey, the
scour lines follow a semi – elliptical shape.
According to Lacey, the normal scour depth is
• Where
• Q=discharge in cumecs
• f= silt factor,
• In practice, the flood flow is not indefinite.
• Due to this, the geometry of the flood section of any
natural stream is governed by the magnitude and
duration of floods.
• Observations have shown that the natural scour lines
have a sharper curvature in the middle than that of an
ellipse , during sustained flows , with the result that
Lacey’s normal scour depth is an underestimate, when
applied to natural rivers during sustained floods.
 Quassi – Alluvial Streams
• Normal scour depth
• The following cases arise:
• When the width of the stream is not very large:
Plot the cross – section and the longitudinal
section of the stream for the dry weather season.
• Over the plotted cross – section, superimpose a
probable scour line .
• Estimate the cross –sectional area of scour (A)
and compute the hydraulic mean radius (R) of
scour.
• From the longitudinal plot, measure the bed
slope (S) of the stream.
• Then by using the Mannings equation,
calculate the velocity of flood flow and in turn
the flood discharge (Q) .
• If this agrees with the designed discharge, the
estimated probable scour line is correct,
otherwise repeat the procedure.
Load Distribution Theory