HISTORY OF RADIOACTIVITY

RADIATION QUANTITIES AN D UNITS

ACUTE AND CHRONIC RADIATION SIKNES

CATHEDRA OF UROLOGY, RADIOLOGY

AND RADIOTHERAPY

LECTURE PREPARED BY
AS. NORDIO O.G.
History of radioactivity
 Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852-1908)
Henri Becquerel (1852-1908)

 Henri Becquerel was born into a family of scientists.

His grandfather had made important contributions in

the field of electrochemistry while his father had
investigated the phenomena of fluorescence and
phosphorescence. Becquerel not only inherited their
interest in science, he also inherited the minerals and
compounds studied by his father.
 Therefore, upon learning how Wilhelm
Roentgen discovered x-rays from the
fluorescence they produced, Becquerel had
ready source of fluorescent materials, with
which to pursue his own investigations of
these mysterious rays.
 The material Becquerel chose to work with
was potassium uranyl sulphate, K2UO2
(SO4)2, which he exposed to sunlight and
placed on photographic plates wrapped in
black paper. When developed, the plates
revealed an image of the uranium crystals.
 Becquerel concluded that the
phosphorescence substance in question emits
radiation which penetrates paper opaque to
light. Initially he believed that the uranium,
which then emitted x - rays, was absorbing
the sun’s energy.
Becquerel’s plate
 Further investigation, on the 26th and 27th of
February, was delayed because the skies over
Paris were overcast and the uranium-covered
plates Becquerel intended to expose to the sun
were returned to a drawer. On 1 March, he
developed the photographic plates expecting
only faint images to appear. To his surprise, the
images were clear and strong.


 This meant that the uranium emitted radiation

without an external source of energy such as
the sun. Becquerel had discovered radioactivity,
the spontaneous emission of radiation by a
material.
 Later, Becquerel demonstrated that the
radiation emitted by uranium shared certain
characteristic with x-rays but, unlike x-rays,
could be deflected by a magnetic field and
therefore must consist of charged particles.
For his discovery of radioactivity, Becquerel
was awarded the 1903 Nobel Prize for
physics.
Pierre Curie (1859-1906),
Marie Curie (1867-1934).
 Pierre Curie and Marie Curie began
investigating the phenomenon of radioactivity
recently discovered in uranium ore. After
chemical extraction of uranium from the ore,
Marie noted the residual material to be more
“active” than the pure uranium. She concluded
that the ore contained, in addition to uranium,
new elements that were also radioactive. This
led to their discoveries of the elements of
polonium and radium, but it took four more
years of processing tons of ore under
oppressive conditions to isolate enough of each
element to determine its chemical properties.
 Pierre Curie discovered nuclear energy, by
identifying the continuous emission of heat
from radium particles. He also investigated
the radiation emissions of radioactive
substances, which led to the discovery of
alpha, beta and gamma radiation. For their
work on radioactivity, the Curies were
awarded the 1903 Nobel Prize in physics.
 Tragically, Pierre was killed three years later
in an accident while crossing a street in a
rainstorm.
 Pierre’s teaching position at the Sorbonne
was given to Marie. Never before had a
woman taught there. A year later, Marie was
awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry for her
discoveries of radium and polonium, thus
becoming the first person to receive two
Nobel Prizes. For the remainder of her life she
tirelessly investigated and promoted the use
if radium as a treatment for cancer. Marie
Curie died 1935, overtaken by pernicious
anemia no doubt caused by years of overwork
and radiation exposure.
Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)
 Ernest Rutherford is considered the father of
nuclear physics. Indeed, it could be said that
Rutherford invented the very language to describe
the theoretical concepts of the atom and the
phenomenon of radioactivity. Particles named and
characterized by him include the alpha particle,
beta particle and proton.
 Focusing on uranium, Rutherford discovered that
placing it near foil resulted in one type of radiation
being easily soaked up or blocked, while a different
type had no trouble penetrating the same foil. He
labeled the two radiation types “alpha” and “beta.”
As it turns out, the alpha particle was identical to
the nucleus of a helium atom. The beta particle was,
in fact, the same as an electron or positron.
 At McGill in 1903, Rutherford and has
colleague Frederick Soddy introduced their
disintegration theory of radioactivity, which
claimed radioactive energy was emitted from
within an atom and that when alpha and beta
particles were emitted at the same time, they
caused a chemical change across elements.
Rutherford and Yale Professor Bertram
Borden Boltwood went on to categorize
radioactive elements into what they called a
“decay series.”
 Through further experimentation involving firing
alpha particles at foil, Rutherford made the
groundbreaking discovery that nearly the total
mass of an atom is concentrated in a nucleus. In
so doing, he gave birth to the nuclear model, a
discovery that marked the inception of nuclear
physics and ultimately paved the way to the
invention of the atom bomb. Rutherford received
the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1908.
 In 1914, he was knighted. In 1931, he was
elevated to the peerage, and granted the title
Baron Rutherford of Nelson. He was also elected
president of the Institute of Physics that same
year.
 On October 19, 1937, Baron Rutherford died
in Cambridge, England at age 66 from the
complications of a strangulated hernia.
 Years before he died, during World War I,
Rutherford said he hoped scientists would not
learn how to extract atomic energy until
“man was living at peace with his neighbors.”
The discovery of nuclear fission was, in fact,
made just two years after his death, and
eventually resulted in what Rutherford had
feared the use of nuclear power to build
wartime weapons.
Irene Curie 1897 - 1956
 Irene Curie was the daughter of Pierre and
Marie Curie, and since 1926 the wife of
Frederic Joliot.
 Either alone or in collaboration with her
husband, she did important work on natural
and artificial radioactivity, transmutation of
elements, and nuclear physics; she shared the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 1935 with him, in
recognition of their synthesis of new
radioactive elements.
 Radiation from radioactive substances also
became an important tool in investigating
atoms. When Irene Joliot-Curie and Frederic
Joliot bombarded a thin piece of aluminum
with alpha particles (helium atom nuclei) in
1934, a new kind of radiation was discovered
that left traces inside an apparatus known as
a cloud chamber.
Ionizing radiation
 Ionizing radiation is radiation with enough
energy so that during an interaction with an
atom, it can remove tightly bound electrons
from the orbit of an atom, causing the atom
to become charged or ionized.
 Types of ionizing radiation
 alpha particle radiation
   beta particle radiation
   gamma ray radiation
  x-ray radiation
Alpha Particle Radiation
 An alpha particle consists of two neutrons and
two protons ejected from the nucleus of an
atom. The alpha particle is identical to the
nucleus of a helium atom. Examples of alpha
emitters are radium, radon, thorium, and
uranium.
 The a-rays are positively charged. Because alpha
particles are charged and relatively heavy, they
interact intensely with atoms in materials they
encounter, giving up their energy over a very
short range. In air, their travel distances are
limited to approximately an inch.
 Alpha particles are easily shielded against and
can be stopped by a single sheet of paper.
Since alpha particles cannot penetrate the
dead layer of the skin, they do not present a
hazard from exposure external to the body.
 However, due to the very large number of
ionizations they produce in a very short
distance, alpha emitters can present a serious
hazard when they are in close proximity to
cells and tissues such as the lung. Special
precautions are taken to ensure that alpha
emitters are not inhaled, ingested or injected.
Beta Particle Radiation
 A beta particle is an electron emitted from
the nucleus of a radioactive atom. Examples
of beta emitters commonly used in biological
research are hydrogen-3 (tritium), carbon-14,
phosphorus-32, phosphorus-33, and sulfur-35.
 Beta particles are much less massive and less
charged than alpha particles and interact less
intensely with atoms in the materials they
pass through, which give them a longer range
than alpha particles.
 Some energetic beta particles, such as those
from P-32 (phosphorus), will travel up to
several feet in air or approximately one half of
an inch into the skin, while low energy beta
particles, such as those from H-3 (hydrogen),
are not capable of penetrating the dead layer
of the skin. Thin layers of metal or plastic stop
beta particles. All beta emitters, depending on
the amount present, can pose a hazard if
inhaled, ingested or absorbed into the body.
In addition, energetic beta emitters are
capable of presenting an external radiation
hazard, especially to the skin.
Gamma Ray Radiation
 A gamma ray is a packet (or photon) of
electromagnetic radiation emitted from the
nucleus during radioactive decay and
occasionally accompanying the emission of
an alpha or beta particle. Gamma rays are
identical in nature to other electromagnetic
radiations such as light or microwaves but are
of much higher energy. Examples of gamma
emitters are cobalt-60, zinc-65, cesium-137,
and radium-226.
 Like all forms of electromagnetic radiation,
gamma rays have no mass or charge and
interact less intensively with matter than
ionizing particles. Because gamma radiation
loses energy slowly, gamma rays are able to
travel significant distances. Depending upon
their initial energy, gamma rays can travel tens
or hundreds of feet in air.
 Gamma radiation is typically shielded using
very dense materials (the denser the material,
the more chance that a gamma ray will interact
with atoms in the material) such as lead or
other dense metals.
 Gamma radiation particularly can present a
hazard from exposures external to the body.
X-Ray Radiation
 Like a gamma ray, an x-ray is a packet (or
photon) of electromagnetic radiation emitted
from an atom, except that the x-ray is not
emitted from the nucleus.
 X-rays are produced as the result of changes
in the positions of the electrons orbiting the
nucleus, as the electrons shift to different
energy levels. Examples of x-ray emitting
radioisotopes are iodine-125 and iodine-131.
 X-rays can be produced during the process of
radioactive decay or as bremsstrahlung radiation.
Bremsstrahlung radiation is x-rays produced when
high-energy electrons strike a target made of a
heavy metal, such as tungsten or copper. As
electrons collide with this material, some have their
paths deflected by the nucleus of the metal atoms.
This deflection results in the production of x-rays as
the electrons lose energy. This is the process by
which an x-ray machine produces x-rays.
 Like gamma rays, x-rays are typically shielded
using very dense materials such as lead or other
dense metals. X-rays particularly can present a
hazard from exposures external to the body.
Nonionizing radiation
 Non ionizing radiations are not energetic
enough to ionize atoms and interact with
materials in ways that create different hazards
than ionizing radiation.
 Examples of nonionizing radiation include:
  Microwaves
  Visible Light
  Radio Waves
  TV Waves
  Ultraviolet Light
Radioactivity

 Radioactivity is the emission of ionizing

radiation or particles caused by the
spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei.
Natural and artificial
radioactivity
 Radioactivity can be natural or artificial. In
natural radioactivity, the substance already has
radioactivity in the natural state. In artificial
radioactivity, the radioactivity has been induced
by irradiation.
 The world is naturally radioactive and
approximately 82% of human-absorbed radiation
doses, which are out of control, arise from natural
sources such as cosmic, terrestrial, and exposure
from inhalation or intake radiation sources.
Atom model
 There are three parts of an atom:
 protons
 neutron
 electrons
 Nuclei are referred to using the following
nomenclature:
 A
 Element
 Z
 Z is the atomic number. It characterizes the
element. It also the number of protons. Since
protons carry all the positive charge in a
nucleus, Z also is the number of electrons in a
neutral atom.
 A is called the “mass number” and is equal to
the sum of Z and neutrons.
 Collectively, neutrons and protons are called
“nucleons”.
 Isotopes: The atoms having same atomic
number but different atomic mass number
are called Isotope.
 Isobars: Nuclides having the same mass
number but having the different
Proton/Atomic number are called Isobar.
 Isotones: Atoms of different elements having
different mass number and different atomic
number but same neutron number are called
Isotones.
 The proton is the part of an atom that helps
to form the nucleus and has a positive charge.
Protons must have an equal number of
neutrons except hydrogen atom where a
single proton exists on its own.

 A neutron is the part of an atom that holds no

charge. Neutrons and protons occur in equal
numbers in stable atoms except in hydrogen.
Protons and neutrons are often referred to
together as nucleons.
 Electrons are the smallest parts of the atom
and have a negative charge. They are the most
numerous of the three. It has no known
components or substructure, so it is an
elementary particle.

 The positron is identical to the electron except

that it carries opposite charge. When an
electron collides with a positron, both particles
will either scatter or be destroyed producing
gamma ray photons. Electrons can collide with
other particles and be diffracted like light.
Radioactive decay
 Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable
atomic nucleus spontaneously loses energy by
emitting ionizing particles and radiation. This decay, or
loss of energy, results in an atom of one type, called
the parent nuclide transforming to an atom of a
different type, named the daughter nuclide.
 For example: a carbon-14 atom (the “parent”) emits
radiation and transforms to a nitrogen-14 atom (the
“daughter”). This is a stochastic process on the atomic
level, in that it is impossible to predict when a given
atom will decay, but given a large number of similar
atoms the decay rate, on average, is predictable.
Radioactive decay
Half-life
 Half-life is the period of time it takes for a
substance undergoing decay to decrease by
half.
 For example: consider 10 kg of radioelement
with a half-life of 1 hour. In the first hour 5 kg
will disintegrate. In this manner in each
successive hour, half of the amount present
will disintegrate.
 Initially, the rate of disintegration is rapid,
but it becomes slower as time passes.
 The fraction can never be zero. All the atoms
of any radioactive sample will disintegrate
after infinite time. This infinite time is
required for the complete decay of any
radioactive sample. Therefore, for
comparison between different radioactive
substances we consider the quantity called
the half-life of the half value period of
radioactive substances. The half-life of
radium is 1620 years while half-life of radon is
only 4 second.
Radiation protection principles

 There are four basic radiation protection

principles that can be employed to reduce to
ionizing radiation. These principles are based
on consideration of four radiation protection
factors that alter radiation dose, time,
distance, shielding and quantity.
Time
 Time is an important factor in radiation
protection. The principles states that the shorter
the time spent in a radiation field, the less
radiation will be accumulated. Depending on the
activity present, radioactive material will emit a
know amount of radiation per unit time.
 Many radiation monitoring devices measure
exposure in milliroentgens (mR) per hour. An
exposure rate of 60 mR/hr means that for each
minute spent in a radiation field, a person will
receive a 1-mR exposure (60mR/hr-5-60min/hr
=1mR/min). Obviously, the longer a person
remains in radiation field, the more radiation
that person will accumulate.
Distance
 The second radiation protection factor is
distance, and the principle is the farther a
person is from a source of radiation, the lower
the radiation dose. This principle is known as
the inverse square law. By measuring the
radiation exposure rate at a given distance
from a source of radiation and then doubling
the distance from the source, the intensity of
the radiation is decreased by factor of four.
Shielding
 The third radiation protection factor is
shielding. The principle follows that the
denser a material, the greater is its ability to
stop the passage of radiation. In most cases,
high-density materials such as lead are used
as shields against radiation. Portable lead or
concrete shields are sometimes used when
responding to accidents where
contamination levels are very high.
Quantity
 The fourth radiation protection factor is
quantity. Because the exposure rate from a
given radioactive material is directly related
to the amount or quantity of the material
present, the principle involves limiting the
quantity of radioactive material in the
working area to decrease radiation exposure.
Any technique that reduces the amount of
radiation or radioactive material in the
treatment area is very useful.
Radiation quantities and units

 The basic radiation quantities are:

 1. exposure dose
 2. absorbed dose
 3. equivalent dose
 4. effective dose
 5. integral dose
Exposure = ionization air

 The old unit to measure exposure is roentgen

(R), which is defined in terms of the amount
of ionization produced in air. The unit for
exposure is based on change/mass of air
(C/kg) (Columb),
 -4
 where 1R=2.58 x 10 C/kg
Absorbed dose = energy/mass
 When ionizing radiation interacts with the
human body, it gives its energy to the body
tissues. The amount of energy absorbed per unit
weight of the organ or tissue is called absorbed
dose and is expressed in units of gray (Gy).
 One gray dose is equivalent to one-joule
radiation energy absorbed per kilogram of organ
or tissue weight. Rad is the old and still used of
absorbed dose. One gray is equivalent to 100
rads. 1Gy =100 rads.
Equivalent dose
 The third important radiation quantity is the dose
equivalent.
 Equal doses of all types of ionizing radiation are
not equally harmful. Alpha particles produce
greater harm than do beta particles, gamma rays
and x rays for a given absorbed dose. To account
for this difference, radiation dose is expressed as
equivalent dose in units of sievert (Sv). The dose in
SV is equal to “absorbed dose” multiplied by a
“radiation weighting factor”. Prior to 1990, this
weighting factor was referred to as Quality Factor
(QF).
 Recommended radiation weighting factors
Types and energy range Radiation weighting
factors, WR
Y rays and x-rays
B particles 1

Neutrons, energy 5
10
< 10 keV
20
> 10 keV to 100 keV
10
>100 keV to 2 MeV 5
>2 MeV to 20MeV
>20MeV

Alpha particles 20
 Equivalent dose is often referred to simply as
“dose” in energy day of radiation
terminology. The old unit of “dose
equivalent” or “dose” was rem. Dose in Sv =
Absorbed Dose in Gy x radiation weighting
factor (WR). Dose in rem = Dose in rad x QF.
 1Sv = 100 rem
 1 rem = 10 mSv (millisievert = one thousandth
of a sievert)
 1Gy air dose equivalent to 0.7 Sv tissue dose
 1 R (roentgen) exposure is approximately
equivalent to 10 mSv tissue dose
Committed dose

 When a radioactive material is gets in the body by

inhalation or ingestion, the radiation dose constantly
accumulates in an organ or a tissue. The total dose
accumulated during the 50 years following the intake is
called the committed dose. The quantity of committed
dose depends on the amount of ingested radioactive
material and the time it stays inside the body.
 Tissue Weighting Factor for Individual
Tissue and Organs
Tissue or Organ Tissue Weighting Factor
(WT)
Gonads 0.20
(testes or ovaries )
Red bone marrow 0.12

Colon 0.12

Lung 0.12

Stomach 0.12
Bladder 0.05
Breast 0.05
Liver 0.05
Oesophagus 0.05
Thyroid gland 0.05
Skin 0.01
Bone surfaces 0.01
Remainder** 0.05

Whole body 1.00

 Integral dose

 Integral dose is the radiation quantity that is

equal to the total energy absorbed by the
body. The SI unit for integral dose is the joule
(the standard unit of energy), and the
conventional unit is the gram-rad.
The norms of radiation safety of
Ukraine
 Three categories of irradiated persons are
identified:
 Category A(staff) - persons directly working with
the sources of ionizing radiation (SIR).
 Category B (certain part of population) - persons
who are not working directly with SIR, but by
living conditions (this made essential difference
with the international standards!!!) or by the
location of working places may be affected by
radioactive substances or other SIR.
 Category C- population of the country, region, etc.

 For category A and B, dose limits are identified to be 50

mSv per year and 5 mSv per year, respectively. For
category C, however, dose limit is not determined, but
there is only a requirement for implementing measures
to restrict irradiation of population. In a case of radiation
accident, "depending on the scale and character of an
accident, the Ministry of Health can establish temporary
dose limits and permissible levels for the population"
Dosimetry
 Dosimetry is the act of measuring or estimating radiation doses

and assigning those doses to individuals.

 Methods of dosimetry

 The ionization method of dosimetry is used with an ionization

chamber and based on estimating the degree of ionization of

the environment through which radiation passes. The greater
the powers of the dose, the more ions appear, the greater is the
ionization current. Measuring the size of the ionization current
gets the picture of the power of an ionizing radiation dose.
 The scintillation method of dosimetry consists in measuring

the intensity of light flashes, which emerge in materials with

the luminescent property (potassium iodide, sodium, cesium,
and others) during the passage of x-rays or y-rays through
them.

 The semiconductive method of dosimetry is during radiation

exposure in semiconductive detectors there emerges the

current after the magnitude of which it is possible to define
the radiation dose power which affects a detector.
 The thermoscintillation (photoscintillation, radioscintillation) method of

dosimetry is based on the ability of a crystalline luminophore (lithium

fluoride activated by silver) to accumulate absorbed radiation energy. In

case of additional heating of crystals in a certain mode there occurs a

thermoscintillation “flash” the intensity of which depends on the dose of

radiation exposure which the luminophore has absorbed.

 The neutron-activating method of dosimetry is the determination of

directed radioactivity as a result of neutrons streams influence.

 The photographic method of dosimetry is based on the ability of radiation

to cause the photolysis of haloid silver as a result of which there occurs its

partial recreation. In the process of revealing in places of radiation

exposure the film darkens proportionally to a dose of radiation exposure.

 The chemical method of dosimetry is based on the ability of
ionization radiations to cause in compounds the dissociation
of polyatomic molecules with the formation of new
compounds. The transparency of color of solutions changes,
some part of a dissociation product sediments or turns into
gas. The quantitative estimation of these changes allows
defining a dose of radiation exposure using the measuring
system graduated with the use of standard radiant.

 The calorimetrical (thermal) method of dosimetry – is based on

measuring the amount of heat which is excreted in a
detector at absorbing ionizing radiations.

 The calculation method of dosimetry – supposes using tables

and nomograms for calculating personal absorbed doses at
different variants of irradiating a person.
Dosimeter
 A dosimeter is a small radiation detection
device worn by an individual, used to
measure doses from ionizing radiation.
 Common types of wearable dosimeters for
ionizing include:
 film badge dosimeter
 thermoluminescent dosimeter
 quartz fiber dosimeter
The film badge dosimeter
 At the core of a dosimeter badge is the film. This thin material reacts

to radiation and is surrounded by a case that prevents light and

moisture from damaging the film.

 When radiation is present, the film reacts and becomes dark. This thin

film typically has two sides. One has a large-grain coating and reacts

when low radiation levels are present. The other has a coating of finer

grain, and is not as easily affected by rays. The large-grain side is used

as an early indication of exposure, while the fine side can be

examined to determine the exact level of radioactivity.

Film badge dosimeter
Thermoluminescent dosimeter
 Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD) worn for a
period of time (usually 3 months or less) and then must

be processed to determine the dose received, if any.

Thermoluminescent dosimeters can measure doses as

low as 1 millirem, but under routine conditions their

low-dose capability is approximately the same as for

film badges. TLDs have a precision of approximately

15% for low doses. This precision improves to

approximately 3% for high doses.

 The advantages of a TLD over other personnel
monitors are its linearity of response to dose,
its relative energy independence, and its
sensitivity to low doses. It is also reusable,
which is an advantage over film badges.
However, no permanent record or re-
readability is provided and an immediate, on
the job readout is not possible.
 .
 A TLD is a phosphor, such as lithium fluoride (LiF) or calcium

fluoride (CaF), in a solid crystal structure. When a TLD is

exposed to ionizing radiation at ambient temperatures, the
radiation interacts with the phosphor crystal and deposits all
or part of the incident energy in that material. Some of the
atoms in the material that absorb that energy become
ionized, producing free electrons and areas lacking one or
more electrons, called holes. Imperfections in the crystal
lattice structure act as sites where free electrons can
become trapped and locked into place.
 Heating the crystal causes the crystal lattice to
vibrate, releasing the trapped electrons in the
process. Released electrons return to the original
ground state, releasing the captured energy from
ionization as light, hence the name
thermoluminescent. Released light is counted
using photomultiplier tubes and the number of
photons counted is proportional to the quantity of
radiation striking the phosphor.
Quartz fiber dosimeter

 A quartz fiber dosimeter, sometimes simply called a

pocket dosimeter, is a pen like device that measures
the dose of ionizing radiation.
 It works by measuring the decrease in electrostatic
charge on a metal conductor in an ionization chamber,
due to ionization of the air in the chamber by radiation.
It was invented in 1937 by Charles Lauritsen.
 The dosimeter must be periodically recharged. It is
usually read before it is charged, and the dose is
logged, to chart one's exposure. Magnifying lenses
(a low-power microscope) and an illumination lens
allow one to directly read the dose at any time by
aiming the illumination lens at a light source and
looking into the device.
 The device is mainly sensitive to gamma and x-
rays, but it also detects beta radiation above 1 MeV.
Quartz fiber dosimeter
The biological effect of ionizing
radiation
 The biological effect of ionizing radiation at
the cellular level can be a direct blow on the
DNA template compromising the structure
and function of the cells. Consequently, the
cells may die, stop dividing or get dysplastic
leading to malignancy.
 The indirect damage is mediated by free radicals
produced by ionization of water molecules. These
free radicals either damage cells directly or affect
the DNA in the nucleus. The fast dividing cells like
lymphocytes, bone marrow cells, keratinocytes
and intestinal mucosal cells are highly susceptible
to radiation damage. The clinical presentation
depends upon whether the exposure is to the
whole body or only localized to a particular part.
 The best understanding of the basic displays of a
radiation injury of an organism can be achieved by their
comparison to the absorbed dose in “critical organs”. As
critical organs understand the vital organ or the systems,
the first leaving out of operation in a researched range of
doses of radiation that causes destruction of an organism
in the certain terms after an irradiation.
 It is very important to distinguish effects of radiation
non stochastic and stochastic.
Stochastic effects of radiation

 Stochastic effects are those that occur by chance and

consist primarily of cancer and genetic effects.
Stochastic effects often show up years after exposure.
As the dose to an individual increases, the probability
that cancer or a genetic effect will occur also
increases. However, at no time, even for high doses, is
it certain that cancer or genetic damage will result.
 Similarly, for stochastic effects, there is no threshold
dose below which it is relatively certain that an adverse
effect cannot occur. In addition, because stochastic
effects can occur in individuals that have not been
exposed to radiation above background levels, it can
never be determined for certain that an occurrence of
cancer or genetic damage was due to a specific exposure.
Non stochastic effects of radiation

(deterministic effects)
 Unlike stochastic effects, nonstochastic effects are

characterized by a threshold dose below which they do not

occur. In other words, nonstochastic effects have a clear

relationship between the exposure and the effect. In addition,

the magnitude of the effect is directly proportional to the size of

the dose. Nonstochastic effects typically result when very large

dosages of radiation are received in a short amount of time.

 These effects will often be evident within hours or
days. Examples of nonstochastic effects include
erythema (skin reddening), skin and tissue burns,
cataract formation, sterility, radiation sickness
and death. Each of these effects differs from the
others in that both its threshold dose and the
time over which the dose was received cause the
effect (i.e. acute vs. chronic exposure).
Acute radiation syndrome

 Acute radiation syndrome (ARS) is an acute

illness caused by irradiation of the entire
body (or most of the body) by a high dose of
penetrating radiation in a very short period of
time (usually a matter of minutes).
The four stages of ARS are
 Prodromal stage - The classic symptoms for this stage
are nausea, vomiting, as well as anorexia and possibly
diarrhea (depending on dose), which occur from minutes
to days following exposure. The symptoms may last for
minutes up to several days.
 Latent stage – In this stage, the patient looks and feels
generally healthy for a few hours or even up to a few
weeks.
 Manifest illness stage – In the stage the symptoms
depend on the specific syndrome and last from hours up
to several months.
 Recovery or death – Most patients who do not recover
will die within several month of exposure. The recovery
process lasts from several weeks up to two years.
 The three classic ARS syndromes are

 • Hematopoietic (bone marrow) syndrome

 • Gastrointestinal syndrome

 • Cardiovascular syndrome/Central nervous

system
Hematopoietic (bone marrow)
syndrome
 The full syndrome will usually occur with a dose
between 0.7 and 10 Gy (70-1000 rads) though mild
symptoms may occur as low as 0.3 Gy or 30 rads.
 Prodromal stage - Symptoms are: anorexia,
nausea and vomiting. Onset occurs 1 hour to 2
days after exposure. Stage lasts for minutes to
days.
 Latent stage - Stem cells in bone marrow are
dying, although patient may appear and feel well.
Stage lasts 1 to 6 weeks.
 Manifest illness stage – Symptoms are anorexia,
fever and malaise. Drop in all blood cell counts
occurs for several weeks. Primary cause of death
is infection and haemorrhage. Survival decreases
with increasing dose. Most deaths occur within a
few months after exposure.
 Recovery – In most cases, bone marrow cells will
begin to repopulate the marrow. There should be
full recovery for a large percentage of individuals
from a few weeks up to two years after exposure.
Death may occur in some individuals at 1.2 Gy
(120 rads). The LD50/60 is about 2.5 to 5 Gy (250
to500 rads).
Gastrointestinal syndrome
 The full syndrome will usually occur with a dose
greater than approximately 10 Gy (1000 rads)
although some symptoms may occur as low as 6
Gy or 600 rads.
 Prodromal stage - Symptoms are: anorexia,
nausea and vomiting, cramps and diarrhea. Onset
occurs within a few hours after exposure. Stage
lasts about 2 days.
 Latent stage - Stem cells in bone marrow and cells
lining GI tract are dying, although patient may
appear and feel well. Stage lasts less than 1 week
 Manifest illness stage – Symptoms are
anorexia, fever, dehydration and electrolyte
imbalance. Survival is extremely unlike with
this syndrome. Destructive and irreparable
changes in the GI tract and bone marrow
usually cause infection, dehydration, and
electrolyte imbalance. Death usually occurs
within 2 weeks
 Recovery – The LD 100 is about 10 Gy (1000
rads)
Cardiovascular syndrome/Central
nervous system
 The full syndrome will usually occur with a dose greater
than approximately 50 Gy (5000rads) although some
symptoms may occur as low as 20 Gy or 2000 rads.
 Prodromal stage - Symptoms are: extreme
nervousness and confusion, nausea, vomiting, and
watery diarrhea, loss of consciousness, and burning
sensation of the skin. Onset occurs within minutes of
exposure. Stage lasts for minutes to hours.
 Latent stage – Patient may return to partial
functionality. Stage may last for hours but often is less.
 Manifest illness stage – Symptoms are return
of watery diarrhea, convulsion, and coma.
Onset occurs 5 to6 hours after exposure. Death
occurs within 3 days of exposure. Death likely is
due to collapse of the circulatory system as well
as increased pressure in the confining cranial
vault as the result of increased fluid content
caused by oedema, vasculitis and meningitis.
 Recovery – No recovery is expected.
Chronic radiation syndrome
(ChRS)
 The chronic radiation disease is the
syndromocomplex of the changes in most
radiosensitive hemopoietic and nervous
system evaluating after the chronic radiation
exposure in dose significantly higher
permissible dose:
 • maximal annual dose near 1.0 Gy
 • total external dose more than 2.0 Gy.
ChRS classification

 ChRS caused by external photon irradiation (y

– radiation, x – rays)
 ChRS caused by internal irradiation from
incorporated radionuclides with variants of
their tissue and organ affinity
 ChRS caused by combined external and
internal irradiation in different variants of
prevalence of one of the components of
irradiation
Degrees of ChRS

 mild (l degree)

 moderate (ll degree)

 severe (lll degree)

Periods of ChRS

 period of formation

 period of recovery

 period of consequences
Period of formation

 One should remember that clinical signs of ChRS, as well, as of chronic infection

diseases, are preceded by a preclinical, prodromal period with unclear

complaints of the patient (headache, rapid fatigability, enhanced irritability,

general weakness, signs of depression), uncertain, nonspecific data of physical

examination and instrumental and laboratory tests (signs of asthenia, functional

vascular disorders, moderate changes in hepatic biochemical indices).

 After discontinuance of contact with radiation ChRs formation continues for

some time - from 1 to 6 months depending on the degree of the accumulated

dose
Clinical signs of ChRS

 astheno-depressive syndrome
 hematological syndrome
 vegetative dystonia syndrome
 dysfunction of the thyroid
 lability of pulse and arterial pressure
 sometimes there can develop changes of the
skin – chronic dermatitis
 The character the disease severity is
determined based on clinical and laboratory
findings in the period of formation and is not
revised in the future, although the course and
outcome of the disease can be different.
Period of recovery

 The beginning of the recovery period is the time

of cessation of over radiation. Afterwards there
begins gradual recovery of the impaired functions
and alleviation of disease signs.
 The duration of the recovery period depends on
the degree of ChRS severity and can last from 1 - 2
months to a few years. Recovery can be complete
or with a defect. Hypoplastic and blastomogenic
processes can develop in the future: acceleration
of involution and development of tumors.
Prognosis

 ChRS itself in most cases does not actually threaten

patients life, its manifestations do not tend to progress.
However, convalescence with complete recovery of
quality of life is obviously not observed. ChRS is not a
continuation of the acute form, although residual effects
of the latter can remind ChRS.
 Consequently, such persons must have regular medical
check - ups with obligatory oncologic examinations once
a year and blood tests twice a year in order to prevent
advanced stages of leukosis. One should also remember
that ChRS could lead to cataract and retinal angiopathy.