DMT125 Materials Science

DMT125 Materials Science
Chapter 2: Atomic Bonding & Structure

Part 2
Periodic variations in atomic size,
ionization energy & electron affinity
 Ionization energy (IE) – energy required to remove
electron from its atom
◦ Always positive because to remove electron, energy
must be supplied to system
◦ Unit: kJ/mol
 Periodic table
◦ Move right across the period – IE increase

◦ Move down across the group – IE decrease
 IE1 – energy to remove electron at outermost core
 IE2 – energy to remove electron at second outer core
 Electronaffinity (EA) – atoms tendency to accept 1 or
more electron & releasing energy in the process
◦ Move right across period = EA increase
◦ Move down across group = EA decrease
◦ Group 1A & 2A (H, Li, Na, etc) – highly susceptible to
ionization
◦ Group 6A & 7A (O, F, Cl, etc) – highly susceptible to EA
 Oxidation numbers
◦ Positive – number of electron an atom can give up through
ionization process
◦ Negative – number of electron that an atom can gain
 1A & 2A
◦ Example: H, Li, Be, Mg, etc
◦ Low IE
◦ Low EA or none at all
◦ Reactive metals or simply called metals
◦ Electropositive – tend to lose electron to form cation (positive ion)
 Lose electron with negative charge
 6A & 7A
◦ Example: O, F, Cl, etc
◦ High IE & EA
◦ Reactive non-metal or simply called non-metals
◦ Electronegative – tend to accept electron to form anion (negative ion)
 Accept electron with negative charge
 3A
◦ Example B (Boron)
◦ Behave either metal or non metal
◦ Also known as metalloids
 4A
◦ Example C (carbon), Si (silicon), Ge (germanium), etc
◦ Metalloids
 5A
◦ Example N (nitrogen), P (phosphorous), etc
◦ Non-metals
 8A
◦ Example He, Ar, Kr, Xe, etc
◦ Noble gases
◦ Very high IE
◦ No EA
◦ Very stable
◦ Least sensitive
◦ EXCEPT He, outer core electric structure
 s2p6
Primary Bonding
 Bond with other atoms, potential energy of each
bonding atom is lowered resulting in a more stable state
 3 bonding combinations
◦ Metal + non-metal
◦ Non-metal + non-metal
◦ Metal + metal
 Ionic bonding
◦ Through electron transfer & ionic bonding
Primary Bonding
 Example
◦ Ionic bonding between metal Li with electronegativity

of 1.0 & non-metal F with an electronegativity of 4.0
◦ Li atom loses an electron forming a Li+
◦ Radius r decreases from r = 0.157nm to r=0.060nm
◦ Reasons of radius reduction
 After ionization, frontier electron is no longer in
n=2 but rather in n=1 state
 The balance between positive nucleus & negative
electron cloud is lost & nucleus can exert a stronger
force on the electrons, thus pulling them closer
Primary Bonding
 Ionic solids
◦ Hard (do not dent)
◦ Rigit (do not bend or have any springiness)
◦ Strong (hard to break)
◦ Brittle (deform little before fracture)
◦ Do not conduct electricity well -> excellent insulators
 Electrons are tightly held inside bond
 When melted or dissolved inside water, can conduct through
ionic diffusion
Primary Bonding
Primary Bonding
Covalent bonding
◦ Bonding between atoms with small
differences in their electronegativity
◦ Mostly bonding among non-metals
Primary Bonding
 Bond energy – energy required to overcome attraction
force
 Bond length – distance between nuclei of 2 bonded
atoms at the point of minimum energy
 Nonpolar covalent bond – sharing of bonding electron
EQUAL between atoms & bonds
◦ Example: H2, F2, N2
 Polar covalent bond –sharing of bonding electron NOT
EQUAL between atoms & bonds
◦ Example: HF
C (Carbon) – basic element in most polymeric materials
Primary Bonding
 Hybridization
Primary Bonding
 Hydrocarbon
◦ Covalently bonded molecules containing only C & H
◦ Example; methane CH4
◦ 4 sp3 tetrahedral covalent bond
Primary Bonding
 Benzene (polymer)
Primary Bonding
 Covalent bond material properties
◦ Most gas, liquid & low melting solid molecules
◦ Molecular (bond between molecules is weak)
◦ Covalent bond between atoms is very strong & difficult to break
◦ Covalent bond between molecues is very weak & breaks easily
Primary Bonding
 Metallic bond
◦ Atoms of a metal are packed tightly together in an
organized & repeating manner to lower their energy &
achieve more stable state in a form of a solid
◦ Free electron
 valence electron is delocalized
 Move freely in a sea of electron
 Do not belong to any specific atoms
 Metallic bonding – attraction force between positive
ionic core (metal cations) & negative electron cloud
Primary Bonding
 Properties
◦ Melting point (mp) – moderately high
◦ Not required to break the bond between ionic core & electron cloud
◦ Ionic materials & covalent network – higher melting temperature
due to require breakage of bonds for melting
◦ Example
◦ 1A: have 1 electron valence at outermost shell
 Lower melting temperature
◦ 2A: have 2 electron valence at outermost shell
 Higher percentage of covalent bonding
◦ Excellent conductors
 Heat: efficient transfer of thermal atomic
 Electricity: when placed at electrical circuit, valence electron rather freely carry
negative charge module towards the electrode
Primary Bonding
 Pure metals – malleable (soft & deformable)
Primary Bonding
Mixed bonding
◦ Ionic – covalent
◦ Metallic – covalent
◦ Metallic - ionic
Secondary Bonding
Driving force - attraction of electric
dipoles contained in atoms or molecules
Created in atoms or molecules when
positive & negative charge centers exist
Secondary Bonding
Dipole moment
◦ µ = qd C.m (Coulomb-meters)
 µ - dipole moment
 q – magnitude of electric charge
 d – separation distance between charge centers
◦ Divided into 2 types
 Fluctuating dipoles – asymmetrical distribution of
electron charge in these atoms creates electric dipoles
 Permanent dipoles – liquefaction & solidification at
low temperature & high pressure of noble gases
Secondary Bonding
Secondary Bonding
Weak bonding forces among covalent
bonded molecules
◦ Example
 Methane, CH4
 Chloromethane, CH3Cl
◦ Higher boiling point in CH3Cl
 Permanent dipole bonding forces among the molecules
◦ Hydrogen bond
 Special case of a permanent dipole-dipole interaction
between polar molecules
Secondary Bonding
END

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DMT125 Materials Science

Chapter 2: Atomic Bonding & Structure

◦ Move right across the period – IE increase

◦ Ionic bonding between metal Li with electronegativity

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