 Read

 Imagine trying to operate a business without knowing who your customers are, what
products you are selling, who is working for you, who owes you money, and whom you owe
money.
 All businesses have to keep this type of data and much more; and just as importantly, they
must have those data available to decision makers when they need them.
 It can be argued that the ultimate purpose of all business information systems is to help
businesses use information as an organizational resource.
 At the heart of all of these systems are the collection, storage, aggregation, manipulation,
dissemination, and management of data.
Data Vs Information

To understand what drives database design, you must understand the difference between
data and information.
 Data are raw facts. The word raw indicates that the facts have not yet been processed to
reveal their meaning.
 Information is the result of processing raw data to reveal its meaning. Data processing
can be as simple as organizing data to reveal patterns or as complex as making forecasts
or drawing inferences using statistical modeling.
 Efficient data management typically requires the use of a computer database.
 A database is a shared, integrated computer structure that stores a collection of:
i. End-user data, that is, raw facts of interest to the end user.
ii. Metadata, or data about data, through which the end-user data are integrated and
managed
 ::The metadata provide a description of the data characteristics and the set of
relationships that links the data found within the database.
 A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that manages the
database structure and controls access to the data stored in the database.
 In a sense, a database resembles a very well-organized electronic filing cabinet in which
powerful software, known as a database management system, helps manage the cabinet’s
contents
 DBMS provides advantages such as:
i. Improved data sharing. The DBMS helps create an environment in which end users have better
access to more and better-managed data.
ii. Improved data security. A DBMS provides a framework for better enforcement of data privacy
and security policies.
iii. Better data integration. It becomes much easier to see how actions in one segment of the
company affect other segments.
iv. Minimized data inconsistency. Data inconsistency exists when different versions of the same data
appear in different places. E.g when a company’s sales department stores a sales representative’s
name as “Bill Brown” and the company’s personnel department stores that same person’s name as
“William G. Brown
v. Improved data access. The DBMS makes it possible to produce quick answers to ad hoc queries.
vi. Database access languages and application programming interfaces. The DBMS provides data
access through a query language. A query language is one that lets the user specify what must be
done without having to specify how it is to be done.
vii. Backup and recovery management. The DBMS provides backup and data recovery to ensure
data safety and integrity.
 A single-user database supports only one user at a time. In other words, if user A is using the
database, users B and C must wait until user A is done. A single-user database that runs on a
personal computer is called a desktop database.
 A multiuser database supports multiple users at the same time. When the multiuser database
supports a relatively small number of users (usually fewer than 50) or a specific department within
an organization, it is called a workgroup database. When the database is used by the entire
organization and supports many users (more than 50, usually hundreds) across many departments,
the database is known as an enterprise database.
 Centralized database. A database that supports data located at a single site.
 Distributed database. A database that supports data distributed across several different sites .
 Operational database (sometimes referred to as a transactional or production database). A
database that is designed primarily to support a company’s day-to-day operations.
 Database design refers to the activities that focus on the design of the database structure that will be
used to store and manage end-user data.
 Even a good DBMS will perform poorly with a badly designed database.
 Proper database design requires the designer to identify precisely the database’s expected use.
 A well-designed database facilitates data management and generates accurate and valuable
information.
 A poorly designed database is likely to become a breeding ground for difficult-to-trace errors that
may lead to bad decision making—and bad decision making can lead to the failure of an
organization.
 Manual File Systems: Historically, such systems were often manual, paper-and-pencil
systems.
 The papers within these systems were organized in order to facilitate the expected use of
the data.
 This was accomplished through a system of file folders and filing cabinets.
 However, as organizations grew and as reporting requirements became more complex,
keeping track of data in a manual file system became more difficult. Therefore, companies
looked to computer technology for help.
Disadvantages of File System Database

 Difficulty of getting quick answers. They are often forced to say that the report will be ready
“next week” or even “next month.”
 Complex system administration. System administration becomes more difficult as the
number of files in the system expands.
 Lack of security and limited data sharing. Sharing data among multiple geographically
dispersed users introduces a lot of security risks.
 Extensive programming. Making changes to an existing file structure can be difficult in a file
system environment.
The term database system refers to an organization of components that define and regulate
the collection, storage, management, and use of data within a database environment.
They include: Hardware, Software, People, Procedures and Data
 1. Hardware. Hardware refers to all of the system’s physical devices; for example, computers (PCs,
workstations, servers, and supercomputers), storage devices, printers, network devices (hubs, switches,
routers, fiber optics), and other devices (automated teller machines, ID readers, and so on).
2. Software. Most readily identified software is the DBMS itself, to make the database system function
fully, three types of software are needed: operating system software, DBMS software, and application
programs and utilities.
i. Operating system software manages all hardware components and makes it possible for all other
software to run on the computers. Examples of operating system software include Microsoft
Windows, Linux, Mac OS, UNIX, and MVS.
ii. DBMS software manages the database within the database system. Some examples of DBMS
software include Microsoft’s, SQL Server, Oracle Corporation’s Oracle, Sun’s MySQL, and IBM’s
DB2.
iii. Application programs and utility software are used to access and manipulate data in the DBMS
and to manage the computer environment in which data access and manipulation take place.
 Application programs are most commonly used to access data found within the database to generate
reports, tabulations, and other information to facilitate decision making.
 Utilities are the software tools used to help manage the database system’s computer components. For
example, all of the major DBMS vendors now provide graphical user interfaces (GUIs) to help create
database structures, control database access, and monitor database operations.
3. People. This component includes all users of the database system. On the basis of primary job
functions, five types of users can be identified in a database system:
i. System administrators oversee the database system’s general operations.
ii. Database administrators, also known as DBAs, manage the DBMS and ensure that the database is
functioning properly.
iii. Database designers design the database structure. They are, in effect, the database architects. If the
database design is poor, even the best application programmers and the most dedicated DBAs
cannot produce a useful database environment.
iv. System analysts and programmers design and implement the application programs. They design
and create the data entry screens, reports, and procedures through which end users access and
manipulate the database’s data.
v. End users are the people who use the application programs to run the organization’s daily
operations. For example, salesclerks, supervisors, managers, and directors are all classified as end
users. High-level end users employ the information obtained from the database to make tactical and
strategic business decisions
 4. Procedures. Procedures are the instructions and rules that govern the design and use of the database
system.
 Procedures are a critical, although occasionally forgotten, component of the system. Procedures play
an important role in a company because they enforce the standards by which business is conducted
within the organization and with customers.
 Procedures are also used to ensure that there is an organized way to monitor and audit both the data
that enter the database and the information that is generated through the use of those data.

5. Data. The word data covers the collection of facts stored in the database. Because data are the raw
material from which information is generated, the determination of what data are to be entered into the
database and how those data are to be organized is a vital part of the database designer’s job.
1. Increased costs. Database systems require sophisticated hardware and software and highly skilled
personnel. The cost of maintaining the hardware, software, and personnel required to operate and
manage a database system can be substantial.
2. Management complexity. Database systems interface with many different technologies and have a
significant impact on a company’s resources and culture.
3. Maintaining currency. To maximize the efficiency of the database system, you must keep your
system current. Therefore, you must perform frequent updates and apply the latest patches and
security measures to all components.
4. Vendor dependence. Given the heavy investment in technology and personnel training, companies
might be reluctant to change database vendors. As a consequence, vendors are less likely to offer
pricing point advantages to existing customers, and those customers might be limited in their choice
of database system components.
5. Frequent upgrade/replacement cycles. DBMS vendors frequently upgrade their products by
adding new functionality. Such new features often come bundled in new upgrade versions of the
software. Some of these versions require hardware upgrades. Not only do the upgrades themselves
cost money,
1. Define each of the following terms:
a. data
b. field
c. record
d. file
2. What is data redundancy, and which characteristics of the file system can lead to it?
3. What is data independence, and why is it lacking in file systems?
4. What is a DBMS, and what are its functions?
5 . Explain the difference between data and information.
6. List and describe the different types of databases.
7. What are the main components of a database system?
8. What are metadata?
9. Explain why database design is important.
10. Is a Spreadsheet a Database ? Explain your reason
11. What are some basic database functions that a spreadsheet cannot perform?