Networking: - Local Area Network (LAN) - Wide Area Network (WAN)

Networking
• growth of number & power of computers is

driving need for interconnection
• also seeing rapid integration of voice, data,
image & video technologies
• two broad categories of communications
networks:
– Local Area Network (LAN)
– Wide Area Network (WAN)
Circuit Switching
• uses a dedicated communications path
established for duration of conversation
• comprising a sequence of physical links
• with a dedicated logical channel
• eg. telephone network
The Internet
• Internet evolved from ARPANET
– first operational packet network
– applied to tactical radio & satellite nets also
– had a need for interoperability
– led to standardized TCP/IP protocols
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
• developed by US Defense Advanced Research
Project Agency (DARPA)
• for ARPANET packet switched network
• used by the global Internet
• protocol suite comprises a large collection of
standardized protocols
TCP/IP Layers
• no official model but a working one
– Application layer
– Host-to-host, or transport layer
– Internet layer
– Network access layer
– Physical layer
Application Layer
• provide support for user applications
• need a separate module for each type of
application
Network Access Layer
• exchange of data between an end system and
attached network
• concerned with issues like :
– destination address provision
– invoking specific services like priority
– access to & routing data across a network link
between two attached systems
• allows layers above to ignore link specifics
Transport Layer (TCP)
• common layer shared by all applications
• provides reliable delivery of data
• in same order as sent
• commonly uses TCP
OSI
• Open Systems Interconnection
• developed by the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO)
• has seven layers
• is a theoretical system delivered too late!
• TCP/IP is the de facto standard
Communications Tasks
1. Transmission system 8. Addressing
utilization
2. Interfacing 9. Routing
3. Signal generation 10. Recovery
4. Synchronization 11. Message formatting

5. Exchange management 12. Security
6. Error detection and 13. Network management

correction
7. Flow control
Circuit Switching
• uses a dedicated communications path
established for duration of conversation
• comprising a sequence of physical links
• with a dedicated logical channel
• eg. telephone network
Packet Switching
• data sent out of sequence
• small chunks (packets) of data at a time
• packets passed from node to node between
source and destination
• used for terminal to computer and computer
to computer communications
Key Elements of a Protocol
• syntax - data format
• semantics - control info & error handling
• timing - speed matching & sequencing
Physical Layer
• concerned with physical interface between
computer and network
• concerned with issues like:
– characteristics of transmission medium
– signal levels
– data rates
– other related matters
Internet Layer (IP)
• routing functions across multiple networks
• for systems attached to different networks
• using IP protocol
• implemented in end systems and routers
• routers connect two networks and relays data
between them
Transmission Terminology
• direct link
– no intermediate devices
• point-to-point
– direct link
– only 2 devices share link
• multi-point
– more than two devices share the link
Transmission Terminology
• simplex
– one direction
• eg. television
• half duplex
– either direction, but only one way at a time
• eg. police radio
• full duplex
– both directions at the same time
• eg. telephone
Spectrum & Bandwidth
• spectrum
– range of frequencies contained in signal
• absolute bandwidth
– width of spectrum
• effective bandwidth
– often just bandwidth
– narrow band of frequencies containing most energy
• DC Component
– component of zero frequency
Analog and Digital Data Transmission
• data
– entities that convey meaning
• signals & signalling
– electric or electromagnetic representations of
data, physically propagates along medium
• transmission
– communication of data by propagation and
processing of signals
Operation of TCP and IP
OSI Layers
Attenuation
• where signal strength falls off with distance
• depends on medium
• received signal strength must be:
– strong enough to be detected
– sufficiently higher than noise to receive without error
• so increase strength using amplifiers/repeaters
• is also an increasing function of frequency
• so equalize attenuation across band of frequencies
used
– eg. using loading coils or amplifiers
Delay Distortion
• only occurs in guided media
• propagation velocity varies with frequency
• hence various frequency components arrive at
different times
• particularly critical for digital data
• since parts of one bit spill over into others
• causing intersymbol interference
Noise
• additional signals inserted between
transmitter and receiver
• thermal
– due to thermal agitation of electrons
– uniformly distributed
– white noise
• intermodulation
– signals that are the sum and difference of original
frequencies sharing a medium
Noise
• crosstalk
– a signal from one line is picked up by another
• impulse
– irregular pulses or spikes
• eg. external electromagnetic interference
– short duration
– high amplitude
– a minor annoyance for analog signals
– but a major source of error in digital data
• a noise spike could corrupt many bits

Networking: - Local Area Network (LAN) - Wide Area Network (WAN)

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Networking: - Local Area Network (LAN) - Wide Area Network (WAN)

Uploaded by

Networking

• growth of number & power of computers is

4. Synchronization 11. Message formatting

6. Error detection and 13. Network management

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