Michelson interferometer

■ Configuration:
Michelson interferometer consists of a coherent light
source, a beam splitter BS a reference mirror ,a movable
mirror and a screen .

■ Applications:
There are many measurements that Michelson
interferometer can be used for, absolute distance
measurements, optical testing and measure gases
refractive index.

■ Work method:
The BS divides the incident beam into two parts one
travel to the reference mirror and the other to the
movable mirror .both parts are reflected back to BS
recombined to form the interference fringes on the screen .
 Intensity of Interference fringes
■ Intensity of interference fringes depends on the phase between the
recombined waves i.e.

■ Intensity I is the complex amplitude of the interferer waves A

given as: I=│A│^2

I = lAl^2 = I1+I2+2(I1I2) cos (Δθ) ^1/2

– When Δθ = 0
I max = I1 + I2 +2(I1I2)^1/2
if I1=I2 then
I max=4I
– When Δθ = π
I min = I1 + I2 – 2(I1I2)^1/2
if I1=I2 then
I min=0
 Visibility of Interference fringes

■ Visibility determines the ability to resolve

interference fringes. It depends on the
coherence degree between the recombined light
waves.

■ It is defined as:
V = I max - I min / I max + I min
maximum if Imin = 0 , V= 1
When Imin = Imax , V= 0

[ 0 ≤V≤1 ].
Application#1: Michelson Interferometer

■ From the screen, an observer sees M2 directly and the virtual image M1' of the
mirror M1, formed by reflection in the beam splitter, as shown in the Fig.
■ This means that one of the interfering beams comes from M2 and the other
beam appears to come from the virtual image M '.
Application#1: Michelson Interferometer
■ If the two arms of the interferometer are equal in length, M 1' coincides with M2.
If they do not coincide, let the distance between them be d, and consider a light
ray from a point S.
■ It will be reflected by both M1' and M2, and the observer will see two virtual
images, S1 due to reflection at M1', and S2 due to reflection at M2.
■ These virtual images will be separated by a distance 2d.
■ If θ is the angle with which the observer looks into the system, the path
difference between the two beams is 2dcosθ.
■ When the light that comes from M1 undergoes reflection at BS, a phase change
of π occurs, which corresponds to a path difference of λ/2.

■ Therefore, the total path difference between the two beams is,

■ The condition for constructive interference is then,

Application#1: Michelson Interferometer
■ For a given mirror separation d, a given wavelength λ, and order m, the angle of
inclination θ  is a constant, and the fringes are circular. They are called fringes
of equal inclination, or Haidinger fringes. If M1' coincides with M2, d = 0, and
the path difference between the interfering beams will be λ/2. This corresponds
to destructive interference, so the center of the field will be dark.

■ If one of the mirrors is moved through a distance λ/4, the path difference

changes by λ/2 and a maximum is obtained. If the mirror is moved through
another λ/4, a minimum is obtained; moving it by another λ/4, again a maximum
is obtained and so on. Because d is multiplied by cosθ, as d increases, new rings
appear in the center faster than the rings already present at the periphery
disappear, and the field becomes more crowded with thinner rings toward the
outside. If d decreases, the rings contract, become wider and more sparsely
distributed, and disappear at the center.
Application#1: Michelson Interferometer
■ For destructive interference, the total path difference must be an integer number
of wavelengths plus a half wavelength,

■ If the images S1 and S2 from the two mirrors are exactly the same distance
away, d=0 and there is no dependence on θ.
 
■ This means that only one fringe is visible, the zero order destructive
interference fringe, where
Application#1: Michelson Interferometer
■ Using the Michelson interferometer, the wavelength of light from a monochromatic
source can be determined.
 
■ If M1 is moved forward or backward, circular fringes appear or disappear at the centre.

■ The mirror is moved through a known distance d and the number N of fringes

appearing or disappearing at the centre is counted.
■
■ For one fringe to appear or disappear, the mirror must be moved through a distance of
λ/2. Knowing this, we can write,

so that the wavelength is,

Applications
1: Determination of wavelength

2dcos = n Bright
For Normal incidence cosθ =1, = 2 ∆d / ∆n

If we shift the position of variable mirror by ∆d (d2-d1=0.00015),

number of fringes ∆n (n2-n1=1) will appear or disappear on the
screen accordingly. Finally we can decide the wavelength of
source.
1. Measurement of wavelength of light
2dcos  m

2d  m0  (  0 )
2d   m
2 d   d  m  m0   n
2. Determination of refractive index or thickness
of a plate

Inserting a plate in the optical path increases path

difference by (µ-1)t.

Hence,
2(µ-1)t=∆n λ
Where
∆n :number of fringes appeared or disappeared
because of the insertion of thin glass plate in the
path of any one ray.

µ :refractive index of the plate

 Difference between two neighboring spectral
lines
2d  n11  n 2  2 Where,
l = wavelength
d = separation between two
If 1   2 and n1  n, n 2  n  1 position of distinctness

2d  n1  (n  1) 2 (1) Substituting in eq 1

 n1  n 2   2 1 2
 n(1   2 )   2 2d 
1   2
2
n (2) 1 2  2
(1   2 )  1   2  
2d 2d
Measurement of wavelength separation
of a doublet

2d1  p1  q 1   
2d 2   p  n  1   q  n  1 1   

2 d 2  d1   n1   n  1 1   
 2
  1
2 d 2  d1 
In the Michelson interferometer arrangement, if one of the
mirrors is moved by a distance 0.08 mm, 250 fringes cross
the field of view. Calculate the wavelength.

[Ans: 6400 Å]

The Michelson interferometer experiment is performed with

a source which consists of two wavelengths of 4882 and
4886 Å. Through what distance does the mirror have to be
moved between two positions of the disappearance of the
fringes?

[Ans: 0.298 mm]

In the Michelson interferometer experiment, calculate the
various values of ̍ (corresponding to bright rings) for d = 5
×10–3 cm.

Show that if d is decreased to 4.997 ×10–3cm, the fringe

corresponding to m = 200 disappears. What will be the
corresponding values of ̍ ?
Assume  = 5 ×10–5 cm.
 Brewster’s Fringes
o David Brewster (1781-1868) is perhaps best known for his invention of the
Kaleidoscope, about which he wrote a treatise published in 1819.
o In the first part of his scientific career he did a good deal of research in optics,
but later turned to writing and editing of scientific works as his main source of
income.

■ In 1815 he observed the fringes produced when two thick, parallel-sided plates
of glass of identical thickness were placed close to each other.
■ The plates are located at one end of a brass tube that has a narrow slit at the
other end; the inside of the tube is blackened to prevent reflections.
■ The two plates can be seen at the end of the apparatus shown on the next slide.
An adjusting screw for changing the angle of inclination of the two plates can
be seen.

o Thus Brewster’s Fringes are::

o  Interference fringes observed when white light is viewed through two plane parallel
plates of nearly equal thickness.
 Brewster’s Fringes
■ This apparatus is in the collection of the United States Military Academy at
West Point, New York, and was purchased from Duboscq of Paris about
1844. The brass tube is 30 cm in length.
Brewster’s Fringes
Brewster’s Fringes
Brewster’s Fringes
Brewster’s Fringes
 Refractive Index of air
■ The refractive index n of an optical medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of
light in vacuum, c = 299792458 m/s, and the phase velocity vphase of light in the
medium

■ The phase velocity is the speed at which the crests and the phase of
the wave moves, which may be different from the group velocity, the speed at
which the pulse of light, or theenvelope of the wave, moves.

■ The definition above is sometimes referred to as the absolute index of

refraction to distinguish it from definitions where the speed of light in other
reference media than vacuum is used.
 
■ Historically air at a standardized pressure and temperature have been common as a
reference medium.
 Refractive Index of Air
■ Air is made up of specific combination of gases, the most important ones
being oxygen and nitrogen.

■ Each gas has its own refractive index that depends on pressure and
temperature.

■ For the main air constituents, the mixing ratio of the constituents is constant
and so the refractivity of a packet of air at a specific pressure and temperature
can be defined.

■ The one exception to this is water vapor which has a very variable mixing
ratio.

■ Water vapor refractivity also depends on density/temperature due to dipole

component.
 Refractive Index of Air/Gas
■ The refractive index of a material medium is an important optical parameter
since it exhibits the optical properties of material.

■ Refractive index determination methods can be devided by the measuring

techniques (refractive, reflective and interferometric) and by the medium
(fluids and solids).

■ Refractive index of a gas or solution is very important characteristic parameter

and some associated parameter such as temperature, concerntration etc may be
estimated from it.

■ Those parameters are of paramount use in optical, chemical and biomedical

industries.
 Refractive Index of Air
■ The wavelength λof
air
a radiation in air is related to its vacuum value which is λvac
■ by λvac = nλair where n is the refractive index.
■ For standard air (dry air at 15 °C and 101 325 Pa, containing 0.045% by
volume of carbon dioxide) the refractive index n2s is given by the dispersion
(ns − 1) × 10  = 8 342.54 + 2 406 147(130 − σ )  + 15 998(38.9 − σ2)−1
8 −1
equation
σ = 1 / λvac  λvac

■ where and is expressed in μm.

■ This equation is based upon observations within the range 200 nm to 2 μm, and
is in better agreement with recent measurements than the previous equation
mainly due to the increase in ambient carbon dioxide levels.
ns − 1 = 0.047 2326(173.3 − σ2)−1

■ In the visible region (405–705 nm) the following approximate expression is

more convenient and gives a maximum discrepancy of only
 p[1 + p(60.1 − 0.972t) × 10
−10
]
ntp − 1 = (ns − 1) × 
96 095.43(1 + 0.003 661t)
 Refractive Index of Air
■ The refractivity of water vapour is less than that of air, so that if the air is moist
its refractive index will be smaller than the value calculated for dry air.
■ This water vapour term is dependent upon wavelength.
■ n the visible region (405–644 nm) the relationship is
ntp f − ntp = −f (3.7345 − 0.0401σ2) × 10−10,

ntp f
 f Pa
■ Where is the refractive index of air containing water vapour at a partial
pressure of , the total pressure still being p.

■ This equation is valid only for conditions not deviating very much from normal
laboratory conditions (t = 20 °C, p = 100 000 Pa, f = 1500 Pa).
Refractive index for the wavelength 589.3 nm (mean of sodium D lines) at a pressure of 101 325 Pa and temperature of 0 °C, relative to a
vacuum.

Gas Refractive index Gas Refractive index

       

Acetone    .    .    .    .    .    . 1.001 090   Hydrochloric acid  .    .    .    . 1.000 447

Air       .    .    .    .    .    .    . 1.000 292   Hydrogen    .    .    .    .    .    . 1.000 132

Ammonia       .    .    .    .    . 1.000 376   Hydrogen sulphide .    .    .    . 1.000 634

Argon  .    .    .    .    .    .    . 1.000 281   Methane      .    .    .    .    .    . 1.000 444

Benzene    .    .    .    .    .    . 1.001 762   Methyl alcohol  .    .    .    .    . 1.000 586

Bromine    .    .    .    .    .    . 1.001 132   Methyl ether     .    .    .    .    . 1.000 891

Carbon dioxide   .    .    .    . 1.000 449   Nitric oxide  .    .    .    .    .    . 1.000 297

Carbon disulphide    .    .    . 1.001 481   Nitrogen       .    .    .    .    .    . 1.000 298

Carbon monoxide    .    .    .   1.000 338†   Nitrous oxide    .    .    .    .    . 1.000 516

Chlorine    .    .    .    .    .    . 1.000 773   Oxygen      .    .    .    .    .    . 1.000 271

Chloroform    .    .    .    .    . 1.001 450   Pentane      .    .    .    .    .    . 1.001 711

Ethyl alcohol  .    .    .    .    . 1.000 878   Sulphur dioxide    .    .    .    . 1.000 686

Ethyl ether     .    .    .    .    . 1.001 533   Water vapour      .    .    .    . 1.000 256

Helium     .    .    .    .    .    . 1.000 035    

   
    † Value for white light .    
Refractive Index Function
 Refractive Index of Moist Air @ RF
■ The following formula has been derived from measured values and the gas
laws, and holds over a wide range of conditions:

Where p1 = partial pressure of dry air in Pa

          p2 = partial pressure of carbon dioxide in Pa
          p3 = partial pressure of water vapour in Pa
           T = thermodynamic temperature in K.
 Interferometer
■ An instrument in which light from a source is split into two or more beams,
which are subsequently reunited after traveling over different paths and
display interference.

■ An instrument that measures the wavelengths of light and distances. It
transmits two radio signals or beams of light and uses the interference
principle (how they reinforce or neutralize each other) to determine the
measurement.
 Rayleigh and Jamin Interferometers

Different types of dual-beam interferometers.LS = light source, M = mirror,

BS = beam splitter, VD = view direction, H = hologram, P = plane plate, O = object,
m = measuring beam, r = reference beam.
 Rayleigh interferometer
■ The Rayleigh interferometer employs two
beams of light from a single source, and
determines the difference in optical
path length between the two paths
using interference between the two beams
when they are recombined following
traversal of the paths.

■ An example is shown in the fig, Light from

a source (top) is collimated by a lens and
split into two beams using slits. The beams
are sent through two different paths and
pass through compensating plates.

■ They are brought to a focus by a second

lens (bottom) where an interference
pattern is observed to determine the optical Rayleigh interferometer
path difference in terms of wavelengths of
the light.
Adv and Disadv: Rayleigh
interferometer

■ The advantage of the Rayleigh

interferometer is its simple construction.

■ Its drawbacks are (i) it requires a point or

line source of light for good fringe
visibility, and (ii) the fringes must be
viewed with high magnification.

Rayleigh interferometer
 Jamin interferometer
■ The Jamin interferometer is a type of interferometer, related to the Mach-
Zehnder interferometer. It was developed in 1856 by the French physicist Jules
Jamin.
■ The interferometer is made up of two mirrors, made of the thickest glass possible.
■ The Fresnel reflection from the first surface of the mirror acts as a beam splitter.
■ The incident light is split into two rays, parallel to each other and displaced by an
amount depending on the thickness of the mirror.
■ The rays are recombined at the second mirror, and ultimately imaged onto a
screen.

Jamin-Interferometer
 Jamin interferometer
■ If a phase-shifting element is added to one arm of the interferometer, then the
displacement it causes can be determined by simply counting the interference
fringes, i.e., the minima.
■ The Jamin interferometer allows very exact measurements of the refractive
index and dispersion of gases; a transparent pressure chamber can be positioned in
the instrument.
■ The phase shift due to changes in pressure is quite easy to measure.
 Rayleigh and Jamin Interferometers

The Jamin Interferometer consists of two sloped mirrors whereby each mirror takes over the
functions of beam splitting as well as beam reunification (Fig 2b). The shift between the measuring
and reference beam is small. It can be used as a differential interferometer, but is also suitable for
measuring refractive indices of gases.

Splitting of the wavefront. Lord Rayleigh developed a procedure to determine the refractive
index by means of a path-shift compensating arrangement. This procedure has found widespread
use in the field of measuring concentrations of two- and three- component mixtures of gases and
liquids.