Eight

Parts of
Speech
Noun and
Its Types
Noun
A noun is a part of speech that
denotes a person, animal,
place, thing, or idea. The
English word noun has its roots
in the Latin word nomen, which
means “name.” Every language
has words that are nouns.
Common and Proper Nouns

Proper nouns are the names of people,

places, things or ideas. They are always
capitalized.

Common nouns are the general names for

persons, places, things or ideas.

Common=girl Proper=Jennifer
Common and Proper

Common Proper
Person friend Melanie

Place country Australia

Thing television Sony

Idea happiness
Nouns can be

 Concrete

 Abstract
Concrete Nouns

 Canbe seen, heard, smelled,

tasted or touched

 Like:rainbows, dogs, cats,

houses, leaves, thunder, etc.
Abstract Nouns

 Are feelings,
happiness
 ideas,

freedom
 qualities or characteristics.
beauty, humor or greed
All nouns fit into each of the
categories
 For example:

 supermarket is common and

concrete

 Safeway is concrete and proper

Collective Nouns

 Are words that name groups

Like…
Collective nouns…

 Act like singular nouns.

 For example, you would write:
The tribe is small.
The faculty is large.

In both sentences, you use a singular

verb because the collective noun is
technically singular even though it is
talking about more than one person.
Count Nouns
 Count nouns are nouns that can be quantified
or counted with a number.

A few examples:
 Names of persons, animals, plants, insects,
and their parts: a boy, a kitten, a rose, an
ear, three boys, seven kittens, twelve roses,
two ears
 Objects with a definite shape: a building, a
balloon, a house, an octopus, four buildings,
six balloons, four houses, two octopi
Count Nouns

 Units of measurement and words of

classification: a gram, a pound, a piece, a
lump, an item, a bit, a family, a state, a
language, a phrase, a word
 Some abstract words: a hindrance, a
scheme, an idea, a plan, a taboo, a rest
Mass Nouns
 Mass nouns are uncountable by a number.
Mass nouns are quantified by a word that
signifies amount.

A few examples:
 Materials, food, metals, and natural
qualities: bread, cotton, wood, lightness,
adolescence
 Names of liquids, gases, and substances
made of many small particles: cappuccino,
oil, smoke, oxygen, rice, sugar, salt, cement,
gravel
Mass Nouns
 Names of languages: English, Spanish, French,
Latin, Sanskrit, Chinese
 Most gerunds: looking, listening, swimming,
running, anticipating

• Remember that a number can not be used to

quantify a mass noun. Incorrect: four woods,
one rice, three courages.
• To measure or classify mass nouns, use "of"
after a measurement: a foot of wood, a pound
of rice, an ounce of courage, a bar of
chocolate, a piece of music, a bag of money
 Verb
Tenses
The word Tense is derived from
Latin word “tempus” which
means time. A verb indicates
the time of an action, event or
condition by changing its form.
Based on Time frame

The verb tenses may be categorized

according to the time frame:
• Present Tense
• Past Tense
• Future Tense
Present Tense :---
Present tense expresses an unchanging, repeated, or
reoccurring action or situation that exists only now. It can
also represent a widespread truth.
Past Tense :---
Past tense expresses an action or situation that was started
and finished in the past.
Future Tense :---
Future tense expresses an action or situation that will occur
in the future.
Based on Aspect

Verb tenses may also be categorized according to

aspect. Aspect refers to the nature of the action
described by the verb. There are four aspects:
• Indefinite or Simple
• Continuous or Progressive
• Perfect or Complete
• Perfect Continuous
Indefinite Tense
The three indefinite tenses, or simple tenses, describe an
action but do not state whether the action is finished.
Continuous Tense
The three continuous tenses, incomplete tenses, or
progressive tenses, describe an unfinished action.
Perfect Tense
The three complete tenses, or perfect tenses, describe a
finished action.
Perfect Continuous Tense
To combine the complete tenses and the incomplete tenses, to
describe an action which was in progress and then finished
 Perfect
Progressive Perfect
Simple Forms Progressive
Forms Forms
Forms

have/has +
have/has +
base form + -s am/is/are + base past
Present / -es form + -ing participle of
been + base
form + -ing
the verb
Reg. Verb –
base form + -d
/ -ed / -ied
had + past
Irreg. Verb – was/were + base had + been +
Past change the form + -ing
participle of
base form + -ing
the verb
spelling / not
change the
spelling
will have +
will have + been
will/shall + will be + base past
Future base form form + -ing participle of
+ base form +
-ing
the verb
Present Tense
Present Indefinite / Present Simple
Habitual action/facts
Ex: Rohan gets up late every day. My mother bakes delicious cakes.

General truth
Ex: Manila is the capital of the Republic of Philippines.
Stars twinkle at night.

Scientific fact/ Universal truth

Leaves make food for the plant.
Gold is a metal.
Present Indefinite / Present Simple
A future event that is part of plan or arrangement
Ex: Our exam starts from next Monday.

Instead of future simple tense in ‘if’ clause of conditional sentence

Ex: If it rains, we shall not go out.
If you go for a movie, I will not take your leave.

In proverbs
Ex: It is wise to make hay while the sun shines. All that glitters is not gold.
Present Indefinite / Present Simple
Affirmative s + base form + s/es + O
The boy goes to market.

Negative s + do/does + not + base form+ O

She does not go to health club regularly.

Interrogative do/does + s + base form + O +

Do they participate in the inter-school debate competition?
Present Continuous / Present Progressive
To Denote an action taking place/in progress at the time of
speaking
Ex: The child is playing with the ball.
The sun is shining in the sky.

Used for action that is planned to take place in the near future.

Ex: I am going to cinema tonight.

My mother is arriving tomorrow.
Present Continuous / Present Progressive
Affirmative s + is/am/are + base form + -ing + O

It is raining heavily.

Negative s + is/am/are + not + base form + -ing + O

It is not raining heavily.

Interrogative is/am/are + s + base form + -ing + O + ?

Is it raining heavily?
Present Perfect
To indicate the activities that have been completed in the
immediate past(not long before)
Ex: The child has just woken up.
I have just completed my work.

To express past actions where time of happening is not

mentioned.
Ex: Mr. Garg has been to Jaipur recently.
Have you met my best friend?
Present Perfect
To describe past events when we think more of their effect in
the present than action itself.
Ex: I have cut my finger.(It is bleeding now)
I have finished all my revision.( now I am free)

To denote an action beginning at some time in the past and

continuing up to the present moment.
Ex: I have known his family a long time.
Sumi has been ill since last week.
Present Perfect
Affirmative s + has/have + past participle + O
I have known him for a long time.

Negative s + has/have + not + past participle + O

I have not known him for a long time.

Interrogative has/have + s + past participle + O + ?

Have I known him for a long time?
Present Perfect Continuous / Present
Perfect Progressive
USE OF ‘FOR’ & ‘SINCE’
Since is used with a point of time(exact time)
Tuesday, January, Diwali, summer, morning , 9o’clock,
childhood, last week, etc.

For is used with a period of time( not exact)

Two days, an hour, seven months, many weeks, ten
minutes, a long time, etc.
Present Perfect Continuous / Present
Perfect Progressive
To express an action that began in the past and has
been in progress till the time of speaking.(sense of
continuity is expressed)

Ex: I have been doing my assignments since morning.

Mr. Iyer has been talking to his clients for three hours.
Patients have been taking their medicines since last
month.
Present Perfect Continuous / Present
Perfect Progressive
Affirmative s + has/have + been + base form + -ing + O
It has been raining for quite sometime.

Negative s + has/have + not + base form + -ing + O

It has not been raining for long.

Interrogative has/have + s + been + base form + -ing + O +?

Has it been raining for quite sometime?
Past Tense
Past Indefinite / Past Simple
Express actions that took place sometime in the past and are over now.
Ex: Teacher discussed about global warming in the class.
I fed birds with some bread crumbs yesterday.

Express past habit

Ex: He usually went for a walk.
Herman never liked football.

Refer to something undesirable/unreal state

Ex: If I were the principal of this school, I would have declared holidays
throughout the year.
Past Indefinite / Past Simple
Affirmative s + base form + -d / -ed / -ied / change spelling / do not
change spelling + O
Juniors arranged a farewell party for the seniors.

Negative s + did + not + base form + O

Juniors did not arrange a farewell party for the seniors.

Interrogative did + s + base form + O + ?

Did juniors arrange a farewell party for the seniors?
Past Continuous / Past Progressive
To denote an action going on at sometime in the past.
Ex: Rita was explaining to us about her experiences abroad.

Used with continually / always / continuously to indicate past

habits.
Ex: My best friend was always joking with me.

To indicate a less deliberate / unplanned action

Ex: We were enjoying the acts of the child in the park.
Past Continuous / Past Progressive
Affirmative s + was/were + base form + -ing + O
She was preparing for her board examination.

Negative s + was/were + not + base form + -ing + O

She was not preparing for her board examination.

Interrogative was/were + s + base form + -ing + O + ?

Was she preparing for her board examination?
Past Perfect
To describe an action completed before a certain point of time
in the past.
Ex: My cousin had studied Business Management in 2015.
He had learnt swimming in his childhood.

To show the action that happened before another action in the
past
Ex: He had left for school when I went to his house.
They had eaten their dinner before I went to meet them.
Past Perfect
Affirmative s + had + past participle + O
You had played the game.

Negative s + had + not + past participle + O

You had not played the game.

Interrogative had + s + past participle + O + ?

Had you played the game?
Past Perfect Continuous / Past Perfect
Progressive
To express an action that began before a certain point
in the past and continued up to some time.
It does not have any effect left at the time of speaking.

Ex:
At that time he had been driving his car for three years.
Robin had been working very hard for his examination.
Past Perfect Continuous / Past Perfect
Progressive
Affirmative s + had + been + base form+ -ing + O
Players had been running for a long time.

Negative s + had + not + been + base form + -ing + O

Players had not been running for a long time.

Interrogative had + s + been + base form + -ing + O + ?

Had players been running for a long time?
Future Tense
Future Indefinite / Future Simple
To describe an action which is to take place in the time to
come.
*Will is used to express something that is certain to happen.
*Shall is used to seek permission; put up proposal; show
probability

Ex:
I will write to her very soon.
I shall propose this theory.
Future Indefinite / Future Simple
Affirmative s + will/shall + base form + O
Our exams will start from next week.

Negative s + will/shall + not + base form + O

Our exams will not start from next week.

Interrogative will/shall + s + base form + O + ?

Will our exams start from next week?
Future Continuous / Future Progressive
To express an action, which will be in progress at a
given moment in the future.

Ex:
My aunt will be flying to Singapore tomorrow at 3 p.m.
At this time next Monday, I’ll be celebrating my
twentieth birthday.
Future Continuous / Future Progressive
Affirmative s + will/shall + be + base form + -ing + O
She will be waiting for you in the evening.

Negative s + will/shall + not + be + base form + -ing + O

She will not be waiting for you in the evening.

Interrogative will/shall + s + be + base form + -ing + O + ?

Will she be waiting for you in the evening?
Future Perfect
To indicate the completion of an action by a
certain future time.

Ex: You will have completed your thesis by next

week.
Before you come to my house, I will have
completed the assignment by myself.
Future Perfect
Affirmative s + will/shall + have + past participle + O
I will have finished my homework by that time.

Negative s + will/shall + not + have + past participle + O

I will not have finished my homework by that time.

Interrogative will/shall + s + have + past participle + O?

Will I have finished my homework by that time?
Future Perfect Continuous / Future Perfect
Progressive
To express an action, which will begin before a definite
moment in the future, will continue up to the moment
and will be in progress even at that moment.

Ex:
Tomorrow at this time, she will have been driving to
Canada.
Future Perfect Continuous / Future Perfect
Progressive
Affirmative s + will/shall + have + been + base form + -ing + O
They will have been practising for their cricket match for one week.

Negative s + will/shall + not + have + been + base form + -ing + O

They will not have been practising for their cricket match for one
week.

Interrogative will/shall + s + have+ been + base form + -ing + O + ?

Will they have been practising for their cricket match for one week?
Pronoun and
Its Types
 Pronoun
A pronoun is a word used instead of
a common noun or a proper noun.
The word pronoun means for a
noun and it called a noun’s deputy.
 "Pro"+ "noun" typically means "in
place, of, instead of" a noun or
a noun phrase. Pronouns, then,
replace nouns and can also refer
back to nouns.
Personal Pronoun
1. Subjective Case
Pronouns in the subjective case are
subjects (the "who" or "what") of the verb.
e.g., He and I saw Laura yesterday.
"who" of the sentence
Note: The subjective case is often called the
nominative case.
 
2. Objective Case
Pronouns in the objective case are the
objects (receivers of action) of the verb.
e.g., Laura saw him and me yesterday.
receivers of ACTION of "seeing"
 Personal Pronoun
HINTS
 
1. Pronoun before verb = Subjective Case
e.g., He and she went out the door.
2. Pronoun after a linking verb = Subjective Case
is, are, was were, etc. .....
e.g., It is she. It is I.
3. Pronoun following a comparison using "than" or
"as" = Subjective case
e.g., Don Nelson is more handsome than he.
 Personal Pronoun
BUT
4. When first noun or pronoun is objective, pronouns
following
"than" or "as" = objective case.

e.g., That shirt fits him better than her.

 
him = objective pronoun her = objective case
 
5. Pronoun after an action verb = objective case
e.g., Iris watched Jess and her leave the library.
 
6. Pronoun after a preposition = objective case to around,
etc.
e.g., Moira gave the reading test to Susan and me.
 Personal Pronoun
An important exception: In answer to the
question "Who is it?" or "Who’s there?" you might,
of course, give your name: "Mike" or "It’s Joan."
But what if you use a pronoun instead? Then
should you say "It’s me" or "It is I"?

"It is I" is preferred by many careful speakers and

writers. But so many educated people use the me
form in this situation that "It’s me" has also
become an accepted form in standard English,
one you need not hesitate to use. Remember,
however, that though It’s me is a standard usage,
It’s her, It’s us, and It’s them are not.
Reflexive Pronoun
Reflexive Pronouns are those which are objects
and which refer to the same persons as the
subjects of the verbs. They end in self & selves.
Examples:
We organized the party all by ourselves.

Be careful not to cut yourself with that knife.

You have all enjoyed yourselves.

The poor man lives all by himself in an old house.

She herself cooked the dinner.
They have proved themselves to be right.
.
I love myself.
You can do it yourself.
He cooks himself.
Demonstrative Pronoun
Demonstrative Pronouns are those which point out
things, as this, these, that and those. Because
they convey a high degree of specificity and
distinctiveness in pointing out ("demonstrating") a
referent; They are showing words.
Examples:
This is my answer.
That was too much for me.
These are sweet mangoes.
Hand me those candles, please.
Relative Pronoun
Relative Pronouns are those which relate to some
noun going before in the sentence as who, whose,
whom, which, what, that. A relative pronoun does
the work of a conjunction as well as a pronoun.
Examples:

The man who stole the car has been caught.

The man whom you accused is not guilt.
The woman whose house I rented is my cousin.
The house which you see was built long ago.
I mean what I say.
Take anything that you like.
Interrogative Pronoun
Interrogative Pronouns are those which ask
questions, as, who, which, what, whom, whose.
Examples:

Who built that house?

Which is your house?
Whose is this book?
Which do you prefer, tea or coffee?
Which of the boys saw him?
Whom do you want?
What is the matter?
Indefinite Pronoun
Indefinite Pronouns are those which refer to
persons or things in a general or indefinite way.
Examples:
All are quite safe.
Many were rescued from the flood.
Some are born great.
Few escaped unhurt.
None of them was clever.
I did not see any of them.
Do good to others.
One should love one’s neighbour.
Much can be said on both sides.
Distributive Pronoun
Distributive Pronouns are those which refer to
persons or things taken one at a time, as each,
either, neither. For this reason they are always
singular and as such followed by the verb in the
singular.

Examples:
Neither of them writes well.
Each of these girls deserved a reward.
You can either take.
Possessive Pronoun
Possessive Pronoun indicates close possession or
ownership or relationship of a thing/person to
another thing/person.

Examples:
That car is hers.
Your book is old. Mine is new.
The voice is hers.
The car is ours not theirs.
I have lost my camera. May I use yours?
They received your letter. Did you
received theirs.
Adjectives
What are Adjectives?
 Adjectives are modifiers. They modify
nouns or pronouns. This means they change
the image of a noun or pronoun.

 Adjectives can be located by asking the

questions:
What kind?
Which one?
How many?
How much?
What is an Adjective?
Adjectives change the meaning of a
noun by somehow changing the
image of it.

That’s why they are called modifiers.

There are two kinds of adjectives:

descriptive and limiting.
 Descriptive Adjectives
 Descriptive adjectives
DESCRIBE!

 The add some sensory image to your sentence which

allows the reader to see, smell, hear, touch, or
taste something in the sentence.
 All of the modifiers in the earlier section of the slide
show concerning the car were descriptive
adjectives. They made the car red, fast, old-
fashioned, broken, and green. Those words are all
adjectives!

 Descriptive adjectives make writing much better!

Proper Adjectives

 One type of descriptive adjective is

called the proper adjective.
 Properadjectives are derived from, or
come from, proper nouns. This means
that they must always be capitalized.
 Proper
adjectives sometimes are
formed by adding a suffix to the proper
noun.
Proper Adjectives

Examples of Proper Adjectives

Proper Noun Proper Adjective

America American
France French
China Chinese
Pennsylvania Pennsylvanian
Proper Adjectives
Sometime proper nouns don’t change in form
at all when they become proper adjectives.
Ex. President Kennedy was a good leader.
(In this sentence President Kennedy is a
person; therefore, he is a noun.)

Ex. The Kennedy Library is very large. (in

this sentence Kennedy is describing the
library; therefore, it is an adjective.)
Limiting Adjectives

 Limiting adjectives point out nouns.

 There are five kinds of them:
Articles
Possessives
Demonstratives
Indefinites
Interrogatives
Articles

There are three articles:

a
an
the
“The” is called a definite article because it
points out nouns more specifically.
“A” and “an” are called indefinite articles
because they do not point nouns out as
specifically.
Articles

“The” can be used before both

singular and plural nouns.
Ex. the cat, the houses

“A” and “an” can only be used

before singular nouns.
Ex. a book, an elephant
 Articles
“The” can be used before both vowels and
consonants.
Ex. the ant, the car

“A” must be used before consonant sounds.

Ex. a duck, a fossil, a uniform

“An” must be used before a vowel sounds.

Ex. an umbrella, an excuse
Possessive Adjectives
 Possessiveadjectives show
ownership of a noun.
 These words are the same as the
possessive pronouns.
 There are fourteen possessive
adjectives:
my, mine our, ours
your, yours your, yours
his, her, hers, its their, theirs
Demonstrative Adjectives

 Demonstrative adjectives point out

a noun.
 They are the same words as the
demonstrative pronouns.
 There are four demonstratives:

this
that
these
those
Indefinite Adjectives

 Indefinite adjectives point out nouns.

 Theyoften tell “how many” or “how
much” of something.
 There are seventeen of them:
all, any, another, both, each, either,
few, little, many, more, most, much,
neither, one, other, several, some
Interrogative Adjectives

 Interrogativeadjectives are used

to ask questions.
 Three of them were also
interrogative pronouns:
which
what
whose
Limiting Adjectives
 Many limiting adjectives have also been
studied as pronouns. How do you tell
when they are pronouns and when they
are adjectives?
-If a word is a pronoun, it will be
renaming a person, place, or thing.
Ex. That is a pencil. (That is renaming
the pencil; therefore, it is a pronoun.)
-If a word is an adjective, it will be
pointing out a noun.
Ex. That pencil is big. (That is pointing
out a pencil, and pencil is a noun;
therefore, it is an adjective.)
 Location of Adjectives
Adjectives can be located in three places in a
sentence.

1. The most common location is directly in front

of the noun it is modifying.
Ex. the big dog, the new toy
2. Another location is after a linking verb or verb
of condition. These are called predicate
adjectives.
Ex. The game was interesting.
3. The final location of adjectives occurs after a
noun when it is set off by commas.
Ex. The book, well-written and suspenseful,
kept my interest.
Adverb and
Its Types
Adverb modifies verb by giving us
the following information.

 How the action occurs

 Where the action occurs
 How many times action occur
 At which time the action occurs
 Intensity of action 
 TYPES/ KINDS OF ADVERBS
Adverbs are categorized on the
basis of it information it gives,
into the following categories.
1.  Adverbs of manner
2.  Adverb of place
3.  Adverb of time
4.  Adverb of frequency
5. Adverb of degree
6. Adverb of affirmation
7. Adverb of negation
 Adverb of Manner
These adverbs tell us that in which manner the
action occurs or how the action occurs or
occurred or will occur.

Examples.
1. She speaks loudly.
2. He was driving slowly.
3. You replied correctly.
4. He runs fast.
5. They solved the problem easily.
6. Listen to me carefully.
 Adverb of Place
Adverb of place tells us about the place
of action or where action
occurs/occurred/will occur. e.g. here,
there, near, somewhere, outside, ahead,
on the top, at some place.
Examples:
1. He will come here.
2. The children are playing outside.
3. He was standing near the wall.
4. They were flying kites on the top of hill.
5. He lives somewhere in New York.
6. She went upstairs.
 Adverb of Time
These adverbs tell us about the time of
action. e.g. now, then, soon, tomorrow,
yesterday, today, tonight, again, early, yesterday.
Examples:
1. I will buy a computer tomorrow.
2. The guest came yesterday. 
3. Do it now.
4. She is still waiting for her brother.
5. He got up early in the morning. 
 Adverb of Frequency
Adverbs of frequency tell us how many times
the action occurs or occurred or will occur.
e.g. daily, sometimes, often, seldom, usually,
frequently, always, ever, generally, rarely,
monthly, yearly.
Examples:
1. He goes to school daily.
2. She never smokes.
3. He is always late for class.
4. They always come in time.
5. Barking dogs seldom bite.
6. The employees are paid monthly.
7. The employees are paid every month.
 Adverb of Degree
 Adverbs of degree tell us about the intensity or degree of an
action, an adjective or another adverb. Adverbs of degree are
usually placed before the adjective, adverb, or verb they are
modifying, although there are some exceptions discussed
below.

Examples:
extremely adjective The water was extremely
cold.
quite adjective The movie is quite
interesting.
just verb He was just leaving.
almost verb She has almost finished.
very adverb She is running very fast.
too adverb You are walking too
slowly.
enough adverb You are running fast
enough.
 Adverb of Affirmation
 An adverb of affirmation is an adverb that is
used in a sentence to affirm it as true.
An adverb of affirmation is also used to
answer a Yes-No question raised by others.
Examples: really, certainly, absolutely,
positively, definitely, truly, undoubtedly,
yes
1. She positively identified her attacker.
2. You are really a genius!
3. Yes, they are coming.
4. It was truly an awesome experience.
5. He is undoubtedly the best swimmer in the
team.
 Adverb of Negation
 An adverb of negation is a grammatical
construction that contradicts all or part
of the meaning of a sentence.
Examples: no, not, never, nothing
1. He is not here.
2. I was never alone in my battles.
3. No, they are not coming.
4. There is nothing special about him.
5. Eating is not allowed inside the
computer laboratory
Preposition
 PREPOSITIONS
 Prepositions are words that we use
before nouns or pronouns to show
their relationship with other words
in a sentence.
Eg: I am sitting on a chair.
I am walking to her.

There are prepositions of location,

direction and time.
PREPOSITIONS OF
LOCATION
 Are used to indicate the
locations or position of objects.

 Eg: on, in, under, in front of,

among, between.
Against – means next to & touching
on upright surface for support.

Eg:
i) The boy is leaning against the wall.

ii) I’m leaning against the white board.

iii) Don’t lean against the wall. It’s just been

painted.
PREPOSITIONS
OF DIRECTION
 Are used to show direction of
movement to and from a fixed
point.

 Eg: to, from, into, along, over,

through, across and around.
Into – used to show motion or movement.
Eg:
i) The cat jumped into the box.

ii) The ball fell into the river.

iii) She poured some boiling water into the

teapot.

iv) The man threw rubbish into the river.

 Across – means on the opposite
side.
Eg:
i) The boy swam across the pond.

ii) Siti is walking across the road.

iii) Ali walked across the river by using

the old bridge.
Around- means moving in a circle.

Eg:

i) The cat ran around the stool chasing

the mouse.
Eg:

i) The boy jumped over

the fence.

ii) The cat leaps over

the drain.
 Eg:

i) Ali kicked the ball through the

window.

ii) Amir threw the rubbish

through the window.
PREPOSITIONS OF
TIME
Areused to show when things
happen.

Eg: by, for, before, after, since,

at and during.
PREPOSITIONS OF
TRAVEL AND
MOVEMENT
These prepositions include-
from, to, by, on, into,
onto, at, out, out of, off.
Conjunction
THERE ARE DIFFERENT TYPES
OF CONJUNCTIONS

• SUBORDINATING
CONJUNCTIONS
• CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
• COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS
• COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
SUBORDINATING
CONJUNCTIONS

• Subordinating conjunctions
join a subordinate clause to
a main clause.

• For example: Although, as,

because, after before, if.
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

• Correlative conjunctions
always travel in pairs, they
link balanced words, phrases,
and clauses.

• For example: both..and

either.. or
 COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS
• Compound conjunctions come
as phrases were several
words together act as a join

• For example: as long as is a

compound conjunction.
COORDINATING
CONJUNCTIONS

•Coordinating conjunctions
join parts of a sentence that
are grammatically similar.

•Forexample: And, But, Nor,

Yet, So
RULES FOR CONJUNCTIONS
We like to start a sentence
with and, but, and or. But
we don’t like the way most
authors/writers do it. Every
time you write a sentence
starting with these words.
You just created a sentence
fragment. Which is a big NO
NO.
An interjection is a word or
words that show feeling or
emotion.
If the interjection shows strong
feeling, it stands alone and is
followed by an exclamation
point.
Wow! That boat is big!

Good grief! The sails are huge!

If the interjection shows mild feeling,
it begins the sentence and is followed
by a comma.
Ah, the breeze is nice.

Well, let’s go sailing!

Common Interjections

Hurra Hey Oh, no Well

y
Good Ah Oops Whew
grief
Okay Oh Ouch Wow
Wow! Those are
some slobbery kisses.

Hurray! I caught another

catfish.
BASIC RULE:
Singular subjects
must have singular
verbs. Plural subjects
take plural verbs.
RULES ON
SUBJECT- VERB
AGREEMENT
1. The pronoun “YOU”
always takes a plural
verb. Examples:

 You were invited to come.

 You are asked to clean the
room.
 You sing so well.
2. If a sentence begins with HERE or
THERE, the verb agrees with the
subject which follows it.
Examples:

 Here are the ways on how to

preserve meat.
 There is a huge gap between the
rich and the poor.
3. If two subjects, one single
and one plural, are connected by
EITHER/OR or NEITHER/NOR, the
verb agrees with the nearer
subject.
Examples:

 Neither the players nor the coach

is joining.
 Either the conductor or the singers
are attending the concert.
4. A singular subject followed by
intervening words or phrases such as
WITH, AS WELL AS, IN ADDITION TO,
ACCOMPANIED BY, TOGETHER WITH
and NO LESS THAN, takes a singular
verb. Examples:
 Jake, accompanied by his sisters, is
enrolling in PCC.
 Daddy, as well as my brothers, is
enjoying the party.
5. Singular subjects joined by
AND require a plural verb,
except when they mean one
thing.
Examples:

 Larry and Mercy are reading

novels.
 My teacher and friend is here.
6. Two singular subjects joined
by EITHER/OR or NEITHER/NOR
take a singular verb.

Examples:

 Either Mommy or Daddy is coming

with me at the outbound.
 Neither Ferdie nor Dulce is waiting
for you.
7. If a singular subject is
followed by a phrase containing
a plural noun, the verb is
singular.
Examples:

 One of the boys is yelling so

loud.
 One of the members is against
the rule.
8. The indefinite pronouns
SEVERAL, FEW, BOTH, MANY ,
OTHERS are always plural.

Examples:

 Both were asking to be freed.

 Several are seeking justice.
9. The indefinite pronouns
SOME, MOST, ALL, NONE are
singular or plural according to
the meaning of the sentence.
Examples:

 Some of the girls were absent.

 Some of the ice cream is left.
10. When any of the following indefinite
pronouns is the subject, the verb is singular:
EVERYBODY, EACH, NO ONE, ANOTHER,
ANYBODY, NOBODY, EVERY, NOTHING,
EVERYTHING, ANYONE, EITHER, NEITHER,
EVERYONE, SOMEBODY, SOMEONE.

Example:

 Every man and woman in this

hall is a member.
11. Expressions of time, money,
weight, and distance are singular
even if the form is plural.
Examples:

 Two years is a long time to wait.

 One million dollars was given back
to the owner.
12. When the amount of money
refers to separate units, the verb is
plural.

Examples:

 Five 25-centavo coins were found.

 Sixty 100-peso bills were added to
the budget.
13. The following words are always
plural: PANTS, TROUSERS, PLIERS,
SCISSORS, SHEARS, TONGS.
However, if the word PAIR is used,
the verb is singular.
Examples:

 The pants are torn into two.

 The pair of scissors was placed
on the table.
14. Certain nouns, though plural in
form, are singular in meaning and
therefore take singular verbs.

Examples:

 Mathematics is my favorite
subject.
 The latest news is alarming to
the public.
15. When the word is preceded
by A, it takes a plural verb.
When it is preceded by THE, it
takes a singular verb.
Examples:

 A number of students are waiting

outside.
 The number of students outside is
not recorded yet.
16. When fractions are used, the
verb agrees with the object of the
OF PHRASE.

Examples:

 One half of the cake was

consumed.
 One fourth of the employees
were attending the seminar.
17. These nouns may be singular or plural in
meaning: ATHLETICS, GENETICS, POLITICS,
GYMNASTICS, STATISTICS. When the noun
refers to an organized activity, it is singular;
when the noun refers to the activities of
individuals within a group, or to varied
activities, it is plural.
Examples:

 Gymnastics is very popular

among girls.
 The gymnastics shown in the
field today were outstanding.
18. The name of a
country is always
regarded as singular.
Examples:

 The Bahamas has beautiful

beaches.
 Philippines is a wondrous
place.
19. Adjectives used as
nouns are considered
plural.
Examples:

 The poor are to be helped.

 The efficient are what this
country needs.
20. Collective nouns may be singular or
plural depending on whether the
individual members are acting
individually or collectively. These nouns
are: COMPANY, GROUP, COMMITTEE,
CROWD, JURY, FLOCK, TEAM.
Examples:

 The committee is against the plan.

(acting collectively-singular)
 The committee are of different opinion.
(acting individually-plural)
21. In the use of mathematical
expressions, the following are
accepted:

Examples:

 Seven plus three is ten.

 Seven and three are ten.
 Five times two are ten.
 Five minus two is three.
22. Titles of books, plays, articles,
movies, etc. are regarded as
singular even though words in the
title may be plural.
Examples:

 “In Dreams Begin Responsibilities”

is a story by D. Schwartz.
 “Great Expectations” is a must-
read novel.
23. Names of organizations take a
singular verb when the whole
organization is referred to, and a
plural verb when the members are
referred to.

Examples:

 Lopez and Sons is a successful

organization.
 Lopez and Sons are holding a two-
day annual meeting.
24. If a sentence begins with the
expletive IT, the verb is always
singular even if the subject that
follows the verb is plural.
Examples:

 It is the schools which must assume

the responsibility.
 It is us who must take care of the
environment.
Agreement of Pronoun
and Antecedent
 PRONOUN

 * It refers to a noun or pronoun or

another pronoun, which is called the
pronoun’s antecedent.

 * It should agree in number, gender,

and person with its antecedent.
1. Singular pronouns refer to
singular antecedents.
Plural pronouns refer to plural
antecedents.
 SINGULAR
 Sammy Davis, Jr., made his movie debut
in 1931

 PLURAL
 The hikers took their canteens with
them.
2. Some singular pronouns
indicate gender.

Masculine Feminine Neuter

He, him, his, and she, her, hers, it, its, and itself
himself and herself

 Examples:
 Claire expressed her doubts about the plan.
 Francis gave his mother flowers.
 The ship came loose from its moorings, and it gently
drifted out to sea.
 3. Person indicates whether a
pronoun refers to the one speaking
(first person), the one spoken to
(second person), or the one spoken
about (third person).
 FIRST PERSON
I need a transcript of my grades.
 SECOND PERSON
Have you fastened your seat belt?
 THIRD PERSON
He said they made their own costumes.
 Indefinite Pronouns

* Some indefinite pronouns are

singular, and some are plural.
Other indefinite pronouns can be
either singular or plural, depending
on the meaning.
1. Use singular pronouns to refer to the
indefinite pronouns anybody, anyone,
anything, each, either, everybody, everyone,
everything, neither, nobody, no one, nothing,
one, somebody, someone, and something.
Examples:
Each of the boys brought his own mitt.
One of the girls left her sweater on the us.

**If the antecedent may be either masculine or feminine, use both

the masculine and feminine pronouns to refer to it.
Examples:
Anyone who is going on the field trip needs to bring his or her lunch.
Any interested person may send his or her resume.
NOTE:
In informal situations, plural pronouns are often used to refer to
singular antecedents that can be either masculine or feminine.

INFORMAL
Everybody stayed late at the dance because they were enjoying
themselves.
**Such usage is becoming increasingly popular in writing. In fact, using a
singular pronoun to refer to a singular antecedent that is clearly plural in
meaning may be misleading in some cases.
MISLEADING
Everybody stayed late at the dance
because he or she was enjoying
himself or herself.

**(Since Everybody is clearly plural

in meaning, the singular
constructions he or she and himself
or herself, though grammatically
correct, are confusing.)
NOTE:
Informal situations, it is best to revise
such sentences to make them both clear
and grammatically correct.

Example:
Allof the students stayed late at the
dance because they were enjoying
themselves.
2. Use plural pronouns to refer
to the indefinite pronouns
both, few, many, and several.
Examples:

 Both of the debaters persuasively presented

their arguments.
 Several of these coins are worth more than
their face values.
3. Use a singular or plural pronoun to refer
to the indefinite pronoun all, any, more,
most, none, or some, depending on how it is
used in the sentence.
Examples:
Some of the computer terminology is
difficult to understand; perhaps Ms.
Alvarez can clarify its meaning.
**Some refers to the singular noun terminology.

Some of the computer terms are

difficult to understand; perhaps Ms.
Alvarez can clarify their meanings.
**Some refers to the plural noun terms.
 COMPOUND
ANTECEDENTS
 * Use a plural noun to refer to two or more antecedents
joined by and.
 Examples:
 If Joann and Benjamin call, tell them that I will not be home until
this evening.
 Pilar, Kimberly, and Laura have donated their time.

 **Antecedents joined by and may name only one person,

place, thing or idea. Such a compound antecedent takes a
singular pronoun.
 Example:
 The corned beef and cabbage was delicious; I ate two servings of it.
*Use a singular pronoun to refer
to two or more singular
antecedents joined by or or
nor.
Examples:
Either Renaldo or Philip always finishes his geometry
homework in class.
Neither Cindy nor Carla thinks she is ready to audition.
**Using a pronoun to refer to antecedents
of different number may create an unclear
or awkward sentence.
UNCLEAR
Neither the backup singers nor the lead
vocalist was satisfied with her performance.
(Her agrees with the nearest antecedent,
vocalist. However, it is unclear whether all
the performers were dissatisfied with their
own performances or all the performers were
dissatisfied only with the lead vocalist’s
performance.
UNCLEAR
Neither the lead vocalist nor the backup singers were
satisfied with their performance.
(Their agrees with the nearest antecedent, singers.
However, it is unclear whether all the performers were
dissatisfied with the entire group’s performance or all the
performers were dissatisfied only with the backup singers’
performance.)
AWKWARD
Neither the lead vocalist nor the backup singers
were satisfied with her or their performance.

* It is the best to revise sentences to

avoid unclear and awkward constructions
like the preceding ones.
REVISED
Neither the vocalist nor the backup singers were
satisfied with the performance.
All of the singers were dissatisfied with their
performance.
 SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN PRONOUN-
ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
*A collective noun can be either singular or plural
depending on how it is used.
* A collective noun takes a singular pronoun when
the noun refers to the group as a unit. A collective
noun takes a plural pronoun when the noun refers to
the individual members or parts of the group.
Example:
The committee comprised three juniors and two seniors; its
chairperson was Angelo. (Angelo was chairperson of the committee as
a unit.)
The committee discussed their varied schedules. (The members of
the committee had different schedules.)
 *Some nouns that are plural
in form take singular
pronouns.
The following nouns take singular pronouns
civics gymnastics mumps
economics mathematics news
electronics measles physics
genetics molasses summons

Examples:
We bought several jars of molasses. Would you like to have a jar of it?
I’m looking forward to studying physics next year. It is my favorite subject.
However, a few nouns take plural pronouns even when they
refer to single items.
binoculars pants shears
eyeglasses pliers shorts
Olympics slacks scissors

Examples:

I have misplaced my eyeglasses. Have you seen them?

Wherever the Olympics are held, they attract athletes
from all over the world.
** Many nouns ending in –ics, such as acoustics,
athletics, ethics, politics, and tactics, may take
singular or plural pronouns. Generally, when such
a noun names a science, a system, or a skill, the
noun takes a singular pronoun. When the noun
names qualities, operations, activities, or
individual items, the noun takes a plural pronoun.

Examples:
She has chosen to pursue a career in politics; she has always
shown great interest in it. (Politics is thought of as a system.)
Some voters support her politics, while other voters oppose
them.
*Even when plural in form, the title of a
creative work (such as a book, song, movie,
or painting) or the name of a country or a city
generally takes a singular pronoun.
Examples:
I have just finished reading Nina Otero’s “The Bells
of Santa Cruz.” Have you read it?

Star Wars is my favourite movie. George Lucas wrote

and directed it.
The Netherlands, also called Holland, is
situated on the North Sea; its capital is
Amsterdam.

Avid golfers may enjoy dining at Caddies

because it is designed to resemble a golf
course and the menu has a golf theme.
NOTE: The names of some
organizations, though plural in form,
may take singular or plural pronouns.
When the name refers to the
organization as a unit, it takes a
singular pronoun. When the name
refers to the members of the
organization, it takes a plural noun.
SINGULAR
 The Evanstown High School Eagles won all of
its football games this year. (The team won as
a unit.)
PLURAL
 Wearing their new uniforms, the Evanstown
High School Eagles posed for pictures for the
yearbook. (The members of the team wore
separate uniforms.)
* The gender and number of a relative
pronoun (such as who, which, or that) is
determined by its antecedent.

Examples:
Roseanne, who knows everyone on her block,
invited the Guerras to a cookout.
(Who refers to the singular feminine noun Roseanne.
Therefore, the singular feminine form of her is used o
agree with who.)

The books that have stains on them will be

discarded.
(That refers to the plural neuter noun books. Therefore,
the plural neuter form them is used to agree with that.)
* An expression of an amount (a
measurement, a percentage, or a
fraction, for example) may be singular or
plural, depending on how it is used.
Examples:

Five thousand bricks is a heavy load; it almost ruined the

truck's suspension. (The bricks are though of as a unit.
Five thousand bricks are scattered on the lot. They make
walking dangerous. (The bricks are thought of separately.)
We have ten minutes to take the quiz; it is enough time.
(The minutes are thought of as a unit.)
We wasted at least ten minutes. We spent them
sharpening our pencils, asking questions, and putting our
books away. (The minutes are thought of separately.
Two thirds of the casserole is gone; it is delicious. (The
fraction refers to the singular noun casserole.)
Two thirds of the apples are rotten; they should be
thrown out. (The fraction refers to the plural noun apples.)
THE END