CHAPTER FOUR

TYPES OF LEADERSHIP
 Bureaucratic Leadership
• Here, there is a hierarchy of power.
• Rules are written and fixed.
• The leader is more like a policeman who just
has to ensure everything is done as per rules.
• but this kind of leadership is effective only
when the work is repetitive and undergoes
routine tasks again and again.
• In a bureaucratic leadership style, the team
spirit and work is maintained by strict rules
and the employee who gives a noticeable
performance is rewarded with a promotion.
• It is followed by supervisors in factories.
• Leads “by the book¨
• Everything done according to procedure
or policy
• If not covered by the book, referred to the
next level above
• A police officer, not a leader
• Enforces the rules
 Transactional Leadership

 • Emphasizes getting things done within the

umbrella of the status quo
• In opposition to transformational leadership
• “By the book" approach - the person works
within the rules
• Commonly seen in large, bureaucratic
organizations
• The transactional leader (Burns, 1978) is given
power to perform certain tasks and reward or
punish for the team's performance.
• It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead
the group
• Power is given to the leader to evaluate,
correct and train subordinates when
productivity is not up to the desired level
and reward effectiveness when expected
outcome is reached.
• Transactional leaders views the leader-
follower relationship as a process of
exchange.
• They tend to gain compliance by offering
rewards for performance and compliance or
by offering threatening punishment for non
performance and non compliance
• Transactional leadership includes the skills
and tasks related to leadership, such as public
speaking and decision making.
• Transformational leadership includes the
process of leadership.
• It focuses on the personal qualities of
leadership.
• It is necessary for youth to understand that it
takes time to interact, learn, and share their
leadership responsibilities because it is part of
learning to be a leader.
• This style of leadership starts with the idea
that team members agree to obey their leader
totally when they take on a job:
• the “transaction” is (usually) that the
organization pays the team members in return
for their effort and compliance.
• Team members can do little to improve their
job satisfaction under transactional leadership.
• The leader could give team members some
control of their income/reward by using
incentives that encourage even higher
standards or greater productivity.
• Alternatively a transactional leader could
practice “management by exception”,
whereby, rather than rewarding better work,
he or she would take corrective action if the
required standards were not met.
• Transactional leadership is really just a way
of managing rather a true leadership style as
the focus is on short-term tasks.
• It has serious limitations for knowledge-
based or creative work, but remains a
common style in many organizations .
• Transactional leaders motivate their
followers with rewards in an exchange based
relationship.
• In this model, the leader-member exchange is
contingent upon rewards.
• These rewards are distributed by the leader
based on performance as described in a
formal contract.
• The relationship expires as defined in the
terms of the contract or quickly diminishes if
promised rewards are delayed or not
delivered.
• Rewards may be positive or negative and
need not be monetary.
• The influence of transactional leaders is
dependent on their ability to provide
rewards.
• The vision is intended to excite everyone
and convert potential followers.
• Visions are often developed by the leader,
the senior team manager or through
discussions of the whole management
team.
 Transformational Leadership

 Transformational leaders, in contrast, are more

visionary and inspirational in approach.
• The most important thing in transformational
leadership is the the leader must buy the vision and
believe in it.
• Transformational leadership begins from a vision or a
view of how the organization will become in the future.
• They tend to communicate a clear and acceptable vision
and goals, with which employees can identify and tend
to engender intense emotion in their followers.
• Rather than exchanging rewards for performance,
transformational leaders attempt to build ownership on
the part of group members, by involving the group in
the decision process.
• This leader is highly visible and uses chain
of command to get the job done.
• Transformational leaders focus on the big
picture, needing to be surrounded by
people who take care of the details.
• The transformational leader (Burns, 1978)
[39] motivates its team to be effective and

efficient.
• Communication is the base for goal
achievement focusing the group on the
final desired outcome or goal attainment.
• The leader is always looking for ideas that
move the organization to reach the
company's vision.
• A person with this leadership style is a true
leader who inspires his or her team
constantly with a shared vision of the future.
• Transformational leaders are highly visible,
and spend a lot of time communicating.
• They don’t necessarily lead from the front,
as they tend to delegate responsibility
amongst their team.
• This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done.
• Transformational leaders focus on the big picture,
needing to be surrounded by people who take care of
the details.
• The leader is always looking for ideas that move the
organization to reach the company's vision.
• A person with this leadership style is a true leader
who inspires his or her team constantly with a shared
vision of the future.
• Transformational leaders are highly visible,
and spend a lot of time communicating.
• They don’t necessarily lead from the front,
as they tend to delegate responsibility
amongst their
• These leaders are change agents as they In
contrast to transactional leaders,
transformational leaders create a vision
that inspires and motivates the target
audience (Burns, 1978).
• Followers place the vision and needs of the
organization before their personal desires.
• Transformational leaders attempt to elevate the
conduct and aspirations of the team members,
transforming both the followers and the leader
to a higher level of performance and
consciousness.
• Transformationally lead teams move to an
elevated level on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
as concerns are shifted from safety and security
to higher order needs such as achievement and
self-actualization (Bass, 1985).
• project their vision for the organization
onto the members of the organization
(Howell & Avolio, 1993).
• Transformational leaders may have long-
term and far-reaching positive effects on
the organization and its performance
when compared to transactional leaders
whose influence is limited by the terms of
the contract with their followers (Yukl,
1989).  
 Charismatic Leadership
• Charismatic leaders are often thought of
as heroes that are able to use their
personal magic to lead others.
• This can be an extremely powerful way to
lead others.
• That's because charisma can be used for
the good of a company or nation - but also
for less-than-honorable reasons.
• Charismatic leaders have the ability to
sense the gap that exists between what an
organization is delivering to its followers
• A charismatic leadership style can appear
similar to a transformational leadership style,
in that the leader injects huge doses of
enthusiasm into his or her team, and is very
energetic in driving others forward.
• However, a charismatic leader tends to believe
more in him- or herself than in their team.
• This can create a risk that a project, or even an
entire organization, might collapse if the
leader were to leave:
• In the eyes of their followers, success is tied
up with the presence of the charismatic leader.
• charismatic leadership carries great responsibility,
and needs long-term commitment from the leader.
• The Charismatic Leader gathers followers through
dint of personality and charm, rather than any form
of external power or authority. F
• from the term itself, it is easy to picture a
charismatic leader.
• He or she is someone who makes people follow
with an attractive kind of personality that most
people just cannot say no to.
• Martin Luther King Jr. is a great example of this
kind of leader.
•
• Charismatic leaders, like King, are often
followed by people regardless of the content
of what they say because they have a magnetic
personality and even their presence is message
enough without opening their mouth and
prove the content of their message.
• Other leaders have to provide solid evidence
of what they are saying in order to gain
influence
• It is interesting to watch a Charismatic Leader
'working the room' as they move from person
to person.
• They pay much attention to the person they
are talking to at any one moment, making
that person feel like they are, for that time, the
most important person in the world.
• Charismatic Leaders pay a great deal of
attention in scanning and reading their
environment, and are good at picking up the
moods and concerns of both individuals and
larger audiences.
• Charismatic Leaders use a wide range of
methods to manage their image and, if they
are not naturally charismatic, may practice
assiduously at developing their skills.
• They are very persuasive and make very
effective use of body language as well as
verbal language.
• Deliberate charisma is played out in a
theatrical sense, where the leader is 'playing
to the house' to create a desired effect.
• They also make effective use of storytelling,
including the use of symbolism and metaphor.
• Many politicians use a charismatic style, as
they need to gather a large number of
followers.
• If you want to increase your charisma,
studying videos of their speeches and the way
they interact with others is a great source of
learning.
• Religious leaders, too, may well use charisma,
as do cult leaders. 
• Charismatic Leaders who are building a
group, whether it is a political party, a cult
or a business team, will often focus
strongly on making the group very clear
and distinct, separating it from other
groups.
• They will then build the image of the
group, in particular in the minds of their
followers, as being far superior to all
others.
• The Charismatic Leader will typically attach
themselves firmly to the identify of the group, such
that to join the group is to become one with the
leader.
• In doing so, they create an unchallengeable
position for themselves.
• The description above is purely based on charisma
and takes into account varying moral positions.
• Other descriptions tend to assume a more
benevolent approach.
• Conger & Kanungo (1998) describe five behavioral
attributes of Charismatic Leaders that indicate a
more transformational viewpoint
• Musser (1987) notes that charismatic leaders seek to instil
both commitment to ideological goals and also devotion to
themselves.
• The extent to which either of these two goals is dominant
depends on the underlying motivations and needs of the
leader.
• The Charismatic Leader and the Transformational Leader
can have many similarities, in that the Transformational
Leader may well be charismatic.
• Their main difference is in their basic focus.
• Whereas the Transformational Leader has a basic focus of
transforming the organization and, quite possibly, their
followers, the Charismatic Leader may not want to change
anything
• Despite their charm and apparent concern, the
Charismatic Leader may well be somewhat
more concerned with themselves than anyone
else.
• A typical experience with them is that whilst
you are talking with them, it is like being
bathed in a warm and pleasant glow, in which
they are very convincing.
• et afterwards, ask the sunbeam of their
attention is moved elsewhere, you may begin
to question what they said (or even whether
they said anything of significance at all).
• The values of the Charismatic Leader are highly
significant. I
• if they are well-intentioned towards others, they can
elevate and transform an entire company.
• If they are selfish and Machiavellian, they can create
cults and effectively rape the minds (and potentially the
bodies) of the followers.
• Their self-belief is so high, they can easily believe that
they are infallible, and hence lead their followers into an
abyss, even when they have received adequate warning
from others.
• The self-belief can also lead them into psychotic
narcissism, where their self-absorption or need for
admiration and worship can lead to their followers
questioning their leadership
 Servant Leadership

• This term, coined by Robert Greenleaf in the 1970s,

describes a leader who is often not formally
recognized as such.
• When someone, at any level within an organization,
leads simply by virtue of meeting the needs of his or
her team, he or she is described as a “servant leader”.
• In many ways, servant leadership is a form of
democratic leadership, as the whole team tends to be
involved in decision-making.
• Supporters of the servant leadership model suggest it
is an important way ahead in a world where values
are increasingly important, in which servant leaders
achieve power on the basis of their values and ideals.
• Others believe that in competitive leadership
situations, people practicing servant leadership
will often find themselves left behind by
leaders using other leadership styles.
• Stewardship: “Servant leaders’ first and
foremost commitment is to serve the needs of
others” (Joseph 2005).
• Wooden undoubtedly put his team’s goals
before his own, something that is uncommon
today as coaches leapfrog from one position to
the next. Wooden remained with UCLA for 28
seasons
• Servant leaders are deeply committed to the
personal and spiritual growth of each and
every individual within the institution”
(Joseph 2005).
• Wooden was someone who was committed to
developing his players and assistant coaches.
• Many who played under him, including
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (formerly Lew
Alcindor), wound up playing professionally.
• Abdul-Jabbar is the NBA’s all time leading
points scorer and a six time NBA champion
(NBA 2011).
• Servant leaders seek to identify means of
building community among those who
work within a given institution” (Joseph
2005).
• Think about what Wooden has done not
only for the UCLA Bruins basketball
program but for UCLA and the sport of
basketball.
• He’s an iconic figure who also
revolutionized sport coaching and
leadership theory
 Task Leaders

• Task leaders are generally concerned with

completion of tasks, accomplishment of goals,
and the general effectiveness of the work
group.
• Leaders utilizing this particular leadership
style are often referred to as directive leaders.
• They use conditional reinforcement as a
management tool.
• This means they tend to base rewards on
performance of tasks, they differentiate
among workers based on their relative
contribution to the group.
• They also tend to show more support for
given employees when these employees or
group members achieve goals.
• Employee motivation to perform and
behavioral change, rather than employee
satisfaction is emphasized by the task
leader.
• Task or directive leaders tend to specify
not only desired outcomes, but desired
means (behaviors) to achieve these
outcomes or goals as well.
• A highly task-oriented leader focuses only
on getting the job done, and can be quite
autocratic.
• He or she will actively define the work and
the roles required, put structures in place,
plan,organize and monitor.
• However, as task-oriented leaders spare
little thought for the well-being of their
teams, this approach can suffer many of the
flaws of autocratic leadership, with
difficulties in motivating and retaining staff.
 Socio-Emotional Leaders (Relationship
Building)
• Socio-emotional leaders are generally
more supportive and accepting of
subordinates.
• They tend to look out for show concern for
the welfare of their subordinates.
• They use non-conditional reinforcement,
by acceptance of employees and
recognition of their worth independent of
task performance and goal attainment
• They work to build up and affirm the self
concept of their subordinates.
• Employee satisfaction and the building of
relationships is the dominate concern of
the task leader.
• The socio-emotional leader's primary
objective is the maintenance of a high
quality relationship with group members.
 Leadership and Conflict
What is conflict?
• Conflict means different things to different
people. For some, a definition of conflict
involves fighting, struggle, disagreement,
dispute, war, trade embargos and so on
• Conflict can be defined as a serious
disagreement over needs( necessity for
survival), wants (a desire for something) , goals
(state of affairs that we value and working to
achieve ) and interest( potential benefits gained
by achieving goals) .
• Conflict is a phenomenon in all relationships and
groups.
• Conflict is an unavoidable aspect of everyday life.
• conflict is an inevitable aspect of life .
• Conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or
coerce the will of another or others
• Conflict itself is neither good (functional) nor bad
(dysfunctional).
• This distinction depends on the type of conflict and how
the conflict is handled. It is difficult to differentiate between
good and bad conflict
• Generally, if the result of a conflict is positive, then the
conflict is considered “good” and if the result is
negative, then the conflict is considered “bad”.
• There are five basic types of conflict.
These are
1.Intrapersonal: conflict within the
individual (for example, a person who
cannot make decisions).
2.Interpersonal: conflict among two or
more individuals (for example, an
argument between a boyfriend and
girlfriend, or between a student and
her/his teacher, or child and parent, or
between friends/colleagues).
3. Intra-group: conflict within a group (for
example, between members of the same work
or football team).
4. Inter-group: conflict between two or more
groups (for example, between two different
youth gangs, or between students and the
school faculty).
5. Inter-organizational: conflict takes place
between two dependent organizations.
Conflict can take place between government
organization, unions and the operating
industry.
The main causes of conflict are
1. Individual Difference:
• In society, men are not alike in their nature,
attitudes, ideal, interest and aspirations. Due to
this difference, they fail to accommodate
themselves which may lead to conflict among
them.
2. Cultural Difference: Culture is the way of life of
a group. It differs from society to society. The
culture of one group differs from the culture of
the other group. These cultural differences
among the group, sometimes cause tension and
lead to conflict
3. Clashes of Interests: The clash of interests of
different people makes conflict inevitable.
The interests of the workers clash with those
of employers lead to conflict among them.
4. Social Change: Conflict also arises due to the
difference between rates of social change. The
change in the moral norms of a society and
man's hopes, aspirations and demands leads
to conflict. The conflict between the old and
new generations is owing to social changes.
Conflict is an expression of social
disequilibrium.
Basis of Conflict:
1)   War: War is the most destructive form of conflict.
The reason for war may be economic gains of due
to difference in religious ideologies or dominance
or encroachment of other’s territory.
2)  Class Conflict: There are different classes in the
social ladder of society. The   upper classes
generally exploit the lower class for their own
benefit and block the progress and prosperity of
lower classes. The exploitation leads to class
conflict. The French revolution and Russian
revolution are the examples of class conflict.
3) Racial Conflict: The presence of different
races in a country brings racial conflicts e.g. in
the U.S.A and U.K and South Africa the
conflicts between the Negroes (blacks) and
Whites, because the Negroes are in minority
and exploited by the whites which leads to
racial conflicts.
4) Religious conflicts: In religious conflict we
find sectarian conflicts or religious conflicts.
This kind of conflict is either within the
religious or between different religions. Within
religion there are sects, which cause
sectarianism.
5)   Political Conflict: In most of the countries a party
getting hold of power annihilates the political
opponents. Political conflicts may be prevalent
among different countries, which may result in
disastrous wars.
6) Inter and Intra community conflicts: Inter
community conflicts are those which occur between
or among communities i.e. community versus
community.
• The other one is intra community conflict, this
conflict is usually within the community i.e.
factions and feuds or sectarian conflicts etc.
• The major causes of these conflicts are usually
economics, social, political, religious (sectarian) etc.
 Functions of Conflict
• It had been said that conflicts are parts of human
society and these are bound to arise because
individuals are separate organs. They can agree
as well as differ form each other It is admitted
that conflict results in wastage of time, money
and energy yet it has certain functions, which are
useful too. Conflict may serve the following
useful purposes.
• Essential for advancement: conflicts are
essential socially to advance the society. It is very
correct to say that harmony and disharmony are
essential for the growth of society.
• So the day-to-day deference are
diminished or demolished after the
conflicts occur.
• Bring positive change: The settlement can
only be possible at the end of a conflict.
• The end of conflicts brings some positive
changes e.g. the conflicts among tenants
and landlords have resulted in the
declaration of land reforms , Conflicts in
family life have resulted in new family
laws etc.
Conflict Management Strategies
There are five different ways to handle
conflicts
1. Competing /Forcing ( win/ lose ) - using
formal authority or other power that you
possess to satisfy your concerns without
regard to the concerns of the party that
you are in conflict with.
2. Accommodating ( lose/win) - I lose, you win
Symbol:
• Working toward a common purpose is more
important than any of the peripheral concerns;
• the trauma of confronting differences may
damage fragile relationships
Strategic philosophy:
• Appease others by downplaying conflict, thus
protecting the relationship
When to use:
• When an issue is not as important to you as it is
to the other person
• When you realize you are wrong
• When you are willing to let others learn
by mistake
• When you know you cannot win
• When it is not the right time and you
would prefer to simply build credit for the
future
• When harmony is extremely important
• When what the parties have in common is
a good deal more important than their
differences
• When time is short and a quick decision is
needed
• When a strong personality is trying to
steamroller you and you don't want to be
taken advantage of
• When you need to stand up for your
rights
Drawbacks:
• Can escalate conflict
• Losers may retaliate
3. Avoiding ( no winners/ no losers ) - no losers Symbol:
• This isn't the right time or place to address this issue
Strategic philosophy:
• Avoids conflict by withdrawing, sidestepping, or
postponing
• When more important issues are pressing and you feel
you don't have time to deal with this particular one
• When you have no power and you see no chance of
getting your concerns met
• When you are too emotionally involved and others
around you can solve the conflict more successfully
• When more information is needed
• Important decisions may be made by default
• not paying attention to the conflict and not taking any
action to resolve it.
4. Compromising :(no clear winner and loser) -You
bend, I bend Symbol:
 Winning something while losing a little is OK
Strategic philosophy.
 Both ends are placed against the middle in an attempt
to serve the "common good" while ensuring each
person can maintain something of their original
position.
When to use:
 When people of equal status are equally committed to
goals
• attempting to resolve a conflict by identifying a
solution that is partially satisfactory to both parties,
but completely satisfactory to neither.
• When time can be saved by reaching
intermediate settlements on individual parts of
complex issues
• When goals are moderately important
• Teamwork and cooperation help everyone
achieve their goals while also maintaining
relationships Strategic philosophy.
• The process of working through differences
will lead to creative solutions that will satisfy
both parties' concerns.
• When there is a high level of trust
• When you don't want to have full reasonability
• When you want others to also have
"ownership" of solutions
• When the people involved are willing to
change their thinking as more information
is found and new options are suggested
• When you need to work through
animosity and hard feelings
• The process takes a lots of time and
energy
• Some may take advantage of other
people's trust and openness
5 .Collaborating( win/win ) – I win, you win
Symbol.
 cooperating with the other party to
understand their concerns and expressing
your own concerns in an effort to find a
mutually and completely satisfactory
solution.
 Other strategies are smoothing, confronting
and withdrawing.
• There are many advantages to use collaborating
strategy
• handle interpersonal conflict situations. 
• Collaborating with the other party promotes
creative problem solving, and it's a way of
fostering mutual respect and rapport. 
• However, collaborating takes time, and many
conflict situations are either very
• There are many conflict situations that should be
handled with one of the other four conflict
management strategies rather than collaboration.
• Leaders who are very skilled at conflict
management are able to (a) understand
interpersonal conflict situations and (b) use the
appropriate conflict management strategy for
each situation
Guidelines in the time of conflict
Mark Gerzon (2006 ) stated 15 basic
guidelines in the time of conflict
1. Make time your ally
2. Breathe-and protect yourself
3. Determine your goal and focus on it
4. Speak to who is present
5. Avoid name –calling and blaming
6. Beware of self-righteousness
7. Keep your shadow in front of you
8. Listen to everything, but respond
selectively
9. First inquire, then fire
10. Take stock before you take side
11. Consider calling in a third side
12. Listen more, speak less
13. Learn your adversary’s language
14. Let your adversary know you
15. Observe the sacred rules
 Leadership and Decision Making
What is decision making ?
 Decision-making is one of the defining
characteristics of leadership.
 A decision is a choice between two or more
alternatives. If you only have one alternative, you
do not have a decision.
 Decision making is the study of identifying and
choosing alternatives based on the values and
preferences of the decision maker.
 Decision making is the process of sufficiently
reducing uncertainty and doubt about alternatives
to allow a reasonable choice to be made from
among them
• The thought process of selecting a logical
choice from the available options.
• When trying to make a good decision, a
person must weight the positives and
negatives of each option, and consider all
the alternatives.
• For effective decision making, a person
must be able to forecast the outcome of
each option as well, and based on all these
items, determine which option is the best
for that particular situation.
• the mental processes (cognitive process)
resulting in the selection of a course of action
among several alternative scenarios.
• Every decision making process produces a final
choice.
Decision-making steps
• When in an organization and faced with a
difficult decision, there are several steps one can
take to ensure the best possible solutions will be
decided.
• These steps are put into seven effective ways to
go about this decision making process
(McMahon 2007).
• The first step - Outline your goal and
outcome. This will enable decision makers to
see exactly what they are trying to
accomplish and keep them on a specific path.
• The second step - Gather data. This will help
decision makers have actual evidence to help
them come up with a solution.
• The third step - Brainstorm to develop
alternatives. Coming up with more than one
solution enables you to see which one can
actually work.
• The fourth step - List pros and cons of each alternative.
With the list of pros and cons, you can eliminate the
solutions that have more cons than pros, making your
decision easier.
• The fifth step - Make the decision. Once you analyze
each solution, you should pick the one that has many
pros (or the pros that are most significant), and is a
solution that everyone can agree with.
• The sixth step - Immediately take action. Once the
decision is picked, you should implement it right
away.
• The seventh step - Learn from, and reflect on the
decision making. This step allows you to see what you
did right and wrong when coming up, and putting the
decision to use
Factors that influence Decision Making
 important factors that influence decision making
are;
1. past experience. Past experiences can impact
future decision making.
Juliusson, Karlsson, and Garling (2005) indicated
past decisions influence the decisions people
make in the future.
 It stands to reason that when something positive
results from a decision, people are more likely to
decide in a similar way, given a similar situation.
 On the other hand, people tend to avoid
repeating past mistakes (Sagi, & Friedland, 2007).
 This is significant to the extent that future
decisions made based on past
experiences are not necessarily the best
decisions.
 In financial decision making, highly
successful people do not make
investment decisions based on past sunk
outcomes, rather by examining choices
with no regard for past experiences; this
approach conflicts with what one may
expect (Juliusson et al., 2005).
 2. a variety of cognitive biases
there are several cognitive biases that influence decision
making.
 Cognitive biases are thinking patterns based on
observations and generalizations that may lead to memory
errors, inaccurate judgments, and faulty logic (Evans,
Barston, & Pollard, 1983; West, Toplak, & Stanovich, 2008).
 Cognitive biases include, but are not limited to: belief bias,
the over dependence on prior knowledge in arriving at
decisions; hindsight bias, people tend to readily explain an
event as inevitable, once it has happened; omission bias,
generally, people have a propensity to omit information
perceived as risky; and confirmation bias, in which people
observe what they expect in observations
3. individual differences, including age and socioeconomic
status
4.An escalation of commitment and sunk outcomes
 decision making may be influenced by an escalation of
commitment and sunk outcomes, which are
unrecoverable costs. Juliusson, Karlsson, and Garling
(2005) concluded people make decisions based on an
irrational escalation of commitment, that is,
individuals invest larger amounts of time, money, and
effort into a decision to which they feel committed;
further, people will tend to continue to make risky
decisions when they feel responsible for the sunk
costs, time, money, and effort spent on a project.
 As a result, decision making may at times be
influenced by ‘how far in the hole’ the individual feels
he or she is
Types of decision making
Based on participants
1. Individual decision making
2. Group decision making
Based on conditions
1. Programmed
2. Non- programmed
Methods of decision making
1. Decision by authority without group
discussion
2. Decision by expert
3. Decision by averaging individuals’
opinions
4. Decision by authority after group
discussion
5. Decision by minority
6. Decision by majority
7. Decision by consensus